OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


S YNOPSI S 


OF 


LECTURES  ON  GEOLOGY, 

COMPRISING  THE 

PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  SCIENCE. 
DESIGNED 


AS    A 


BY  JOHN  RUGGLES  SOTTING, 

Late  Professor  of  Natural  Science  in  the  Brookfield  F.  C.  Seminary, 
Author  of  Introduction  to  Chemistry,  $c. 


TAUUTOBT. 

PUBLISHBD  FOR  THE  AUTHOR. 

183,5. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  18S5. 

BY  JOHN  R.  COTTING, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District 
of  Massachusetts. 


XDMUND   ANTHONY,  PKIKTEK. 
TAUNTON,  MASS. 


PREFACE. 


To  encourage  a  taste  for  the  highly  interesting  and  moral  sci- 
ence of  Geology,  to  elicit  a  spirit  of  investigation  and  afford  assist- 
ance to  those  who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  its 
principles,  which  can  no  longer  be  neglected  with  safety  to  revela- 
tion and  morals,  is  the  design  of  the  author  in  the  following  pages. 
The  work  contains  the  substance  of  courses  of  lectures  delivered 
to  several  classes  in  the  County  of  Bristol,  Mass.,  and  in  Rhode 
Island,  in  1834-5. 

The  want  of  a  suitable  book,  of  a  moderate  size,  as  a  companion, 
or  vade  mecmn.  during  the  delivery  of  the  lectures  was  seriously 
felt,  by  the  members  of  the  different  classes.  The  technical  terms 
being  new  to  most  of  the  audience,  were  not  readily  comprehend- 
ed, although  much  pains  was  taken  to  render  them,  familiar  by 
specimens  and  diagrams;  it  occurred  to  the  lecturer  and  to  others 
that  if  a  small  work  could  be  prepared  to  which  every  one  might 
have  access,  during  the  lecture,  it  would  greatly  facilitate  their 
progress,  and,  also  aid  in  their  future  investigations. 

Geological  works  are,  in  general,  voluminous  and  scarce,  and 
the  expense  such,  as  not  to  comport  with  the  means,  or  inclina- 
tion of  many  who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  some  knowledge  of 
this  useful  branch  of  science,  hitherto  almost  novel  in  this  part  of 
the  country.  And  very  few  of  these  are  calculated  for  textbooks, 
in  a  popular  course  of  lectures. 

In  compliance  with  the  request  of  many  of  the  members  of  his 
classes,  the  author  has  here  given  a  synopsis  of  his  lectures  accor- 
ding to  the  latest  and  general  acknowledged  theory  of  the  for- 
mation of  the  earth.  Which  he  believes  will  not  only  prove  use- 


IV 

ful  as  an  auxiliary  to  those  attending  lectures,  but  as  a  book  of 
reference  to  others. 

In  the  compilation,  he  has  consulted  the  works  of  the  most  em- 
inent Geologists  of  Europe  and  America.  Among  others,  those 
of  McCulloch,  Ure,  Conybeare  and  Philips,  de  la  Beche,  Cuvier, 
Humboldt,  Parkinson,  Bakewell,  Hitchcock,  Eaton,  &,c. 

No  pretensions  are  made  to  infallibility,  or  that  the  work  is  un- 
exceptionable; such  pretensions  would  be  falacious  in  the  present 
state  of  the  science.  There  is  not  any  science  so  incumbered  with 
various  and  conflicting  theories  as  Geology,  but  it  appears  approx- 
imating to  a  permanency.  Great  and  powerful  minds  are  employ- 
ed on  the  subject;  analysis  and  rigid  induction  are  called  to  its  aid  5 
investigation  is  pursued  with  zealous  and  untiring  industry;  a  de- 
sire and  taste  for  its  pursuit  pervades  all  classes,  and  we  may  hope 
that  its  correct  principles  will  soon  be  established  on  as  permanent 
a  basis,  as  those  of  Astronomy  and  Chemistry. 

If  this  brief  manual  shall,  in  any  manner  contribute  to  promote 
the  iuterest  of  science,  or  gratify  the  wishes  of  his  friends,  the  au- 
thor will  feel  himself  amply  rewarded.  For  many  imperfectionsj 
be  claims  indulgence,  hoping  that  they  will  not  be  found  of  such 
importance  as  to  render  the  wish  too  presumptuous  of  having  it 
considered  as  a  humble  subsidiary  to  scientific  and  valuable  com- 
prehensive works.  J.  R.  C, 

Taunton,  August,  1835. 


Ho 


DEFINITIONS  &c. 

GEOLOGY  literally  signifies  a  discourse  concern- 
ing the  earth.  Its  formation,  strata,  mountains, 
valleys ;  the  remains  of  organized  beings  found 
in  its  solid  contents  &c.  the  probable  antiquity  of 
the  earth  ;  and  the  causes  which  have  formerly, 
or  are  still  operating  to  produce  the  changes 
which  we  witness  on  its  surface,  or  beneath  its 
crust. 

Oryctology  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
nature,  origin  and  formation  of  those  bodies 
which  possess  the  figures,  markings  or  structure 
of  vegetables,  or  animals  ;  whilst  the  substance 
evinces  their  having  been  preserved  through 
many  ages,  by  certain  changes  effected  in  suba- 
queous, or  subterranean  situations.  The  sub* 
stance  of  which  they  are  composed  being  general- 
ly of  a  mineral  nature,  the  term  fossils  is  applied 
to  them  as  indicative  of  their  having  been  dug 
from  subterraneous  situations. 

The  earth  was  created  by  an  intelligent  and 
Almighty  being ;  laws  or  principles  were  infused 
and  the  changes  were  produced  by  the  efficiency 
of  those  laws  operating  by  His  agency. 

The  earth  is  a  spheroid,  this  appears  to  be  the 


eliect  of  rotation,  or  such  a  figure  as  a  fluid  body 
would  assume  if  revolving  in  space.  Its  equatorial 
diameter,  7924  miles  nearly  ;  Its  polar  axis  7898. 
Difference — 26  miles. 

Mean  density  of  the  earth  5.  nearly,  or  about 
five  times  heavier  than  a  globe  of  water  of  equal 
bulk. 

The  relative  proportion  of  dry  land,  at  present, 
is  to  that  of  water  as  2-5ths  to  3-5ths  ;  but  there 
is  but  about  l-5th  habitable  by  man. 

A  central  heat  appears  probably  to  exist  in  the 
earth,  which  is  an  important  agent  in  supporting 
the  present  temperature  of  the  globe.  This  hy- 
pothesis receives  confirmation  from  the  occur- 
rence of  numerous  active  and  extinct  volcanoes ; 
from  rocks  which  are  evidently  of  igneous  origin, 
and  from  Ij^ot  and  warm  springs,  as  well  as  from 
observations  made  in  mines,  that  the  temperature 
increases  as  we  descend.  But  decreases  from 
the  surface  until  we  arrive  at  the  termination  of 
solar  heat,  when  it  begins  to  increase. 

The  superficial  contents  of  the  earth  are  calcu- 
lated at  190,000,000  square  miles. 

The  following  are  the  different  classes  of  rocks. 

1 .  Primary,  or  the  lowest,  containing  no  fossil 
organic  remains. 

2.  Transition,  containing  organic  remains  of  the 
lowest  class  of  animals  and  vegetables  ;  also  frag- 
mentary rock,  of  the  primary  class. 

3.  Secondary,  lower  and  upper. 

The  lower  distinctly  stratified,  composed  of 
sand  stone,  beds  of  coal,  and  iron  stone  and  the 
fossil  remains  of  vegetables. 


The  upper  series  of  secondary  strata  contain 
stratified  limestone  with  beds  of  shale  and  sand 
stone  interposed,  and  the  fossil  remains  of 
marine  animals,  but  different  from  those  in  the 
lower.  Here  we  find  the  remains  of  animals  of 
the  lizard  species  of  immense  size.  Also,  the 
bones  of  fresh  water  and  amphibious  reptiles. 

These  strata  appear  to  have  been  formed  un- 
der different  circumstances  from  the  lower,  but 
after  a  long  interval  of  time  when  the  surface  of 
the  globe  had  been  much  fractured  and  displaced. 
They  do  not  lie  parrallel  with  the  lower,  but  are 
unconformable  and  cover  the  edges  of  the  lower. 
4.  Tertiary,  or  the  most  recent  formation. 
In  these  strata  arc  numerous  bones  of  quadru- 
peds of  the  class  mammalia,  of  terrestrial  origin, 
the  greater  part  of  which  appear  to  belong  to 
genera  and  species  no  longer  living  in  any  part 
of  the  globe.  Also  numerous  marine  and  fresh 
water  shells,  the  latter  appear  to  be  more  numer- 
ous than  the  former. 

Basaltic  and  volcanic  rocks.  Or  those  which 
have  either  been  ejected  from  volcanoes,  or  emit- 
ted in  a  state  of  fusion  from  rents  and  opening 
through  the  crust  of  the  earth.  Sometimes  they 
occur  in  a  columnar  form,  and  sometimes  they  fill 
vast  fissures,  or  dykes. 

Diluvial  and  Alluvial. 

The  first  consists  of  vast  beds  of  gravel,  frag- 
ments of  rocks,  and  boulders  hurled  to  great  dis- 
tances from  their  original  beds.  Also  siliceous 
sand  and  disintegrated  rocks,  assuming  a  stratifi- 


8 

ed  structure.  The  second  consists  of  sand,  peb- 
bles, pieces  of  wood,  leaves  &c  ;  also  the  bones 
of  animals,  and  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable 
substances. 

These  classes  have  their  appropriate  mineral 
contents,  which  serve  as  data  to  our  observations 
and  the  epochs  of  their  formation. 


Iffio 


Of  the  mineral  substances  composing  the  crust 
of  the  globe 

The  mineral  substances  that  occur  in  the  sur- 
face of  the  globe  differ  in  density,  hardness,  color 
and  other  properties.  All  the  variety  of  rocks, 
however  diversified  are  composed  of  a  very  small 
number  of  simple  substances. 

The  elementary  substances  of  which  the  solid 
matter  of  the  globe  is  composed,  are,  in  general, 
the  following. 

Silex,  Allumine,  Lime,  Magnesia,  Iron,  Man- 
ganese, Carbon,  Sulphur,  Potash,  Soda,  Muriatic, 
Carbonic,  Sulphuric  and  Phosphoric  acids.  Also 
in  a  very  limited  proportion,  Strontian,  Barytes* 
Glucina,  Zirconia  and,  Yttria,  as  well  as  metallic 


ores,  but  the  proportion  is  so  small  as  not  to  mer- 
it notice. 

Silex,  or  siliceous  earth,  exists  nearly  pure  in 
quartz  rock,  and  rock  crystal.  It  communicates 
a  degree  of  hardness  and  grittiness  to  all  rocks 
into  which  it  enters  in  any  considerable  degree. 
It  composes  more  than  one  half  of  the  solid  mat- 
ter of  the  crust  of  the^globe.  In  some  hot  springs, 
silex  occurs  in  the  state  of  minute  division,  or  in 
solution.  As  in  the  Geysers  of  Iceland. 

Alumine,  or  pure  Clay,  this  in  a  mixed  state  is 
well  known,  but  unmixed  it  is  very  rare.  It  is 
soft,  smooth,  unctuous  to  the  touch ;  very  absorb- 
ant  of  water  ;  rocks  containing  it  in  the  propor- 
tion of  30  per  cent,  or  more  are  called  argilla- 
ceous. Iron  appears  to  have  a  greater  affinity 
for  this  earth  than  for  any  other.  Few  clays  are 
destitute  of  a  portion  of  iron.  It  forms  a  princi- 
pal constituent  part  of  most  stones,  and  of  exten- 
sive strata. 

Lime,  combined  with  carbonic  acid  forms 
lime  stone<  marble,  chalk  &c.  Stones  containing 
it  are  called  calcareous.  United  with  sulphuric 
acid,  it  forms  gypsum,  or  Plaster  of  Paris,  with 
fluoric  acid,  Derbyshire  Spar.  Marl  is  a  compo- 
sition of  lime  and  clay,  with  a  small  portion  of  si- 
lex.  Limestone  generally  effervesces  with  acids. 

Magnesia,  rarely  pure  in  nature,  but  in  com- 
position it  communicates  a  soapy  feel  to  the  rock, 
sometimes,  a  striated  or  striped  texture  and  the 
property  of  resisting  high  degrees  of  temperature. 
It  occurs  in  limestone  in  different  proportions.  It 
abounds  in  talc  and  soap  stone. 


10 

Iron,  is  very  abundant  in  the  mineral  kingdom, 
it  forms  a  constituent  part  of  various  rocks  and 
stones,  and  imparts  different  colors.  It  is  com- 
bined in  the  state  of  an  oxide,  or  a  metal.  In 
composition,  it  increases  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  mineral.  It  gives  a  tendency  to  decomposit- 
ion of  the  rock  in  which  it  enters,  especially  when 
combined  with  sulphur. 

Manganese,  This  in  the  state  of  an  oxide  commu- 
nicates a  dull  reddish  color  inclining  to  purple, 
and  a  peculiar  dry.  and  burnt  like  appearance.  It 
occurs  only  in  a  few  rocks. 

Sulphur,  combined  with  oxygen,  forming  sul- 
phuric acid,  enters  into  the  substance  of  some 
rocks,  such,  as  gypsum,  though  its  combinations 
are  not  extensive.  It  combines  with  iron  and 
forms  the  well  known  substance  of  a  crystalline 
form  and  yellow  color,  called  sulphur et  of  iron, 
or  iron  pyrites.  Often  mistaken  by  the  inex- 
perienced for  gold. 

Carbon,  enters  into  the  composition  of  many  of 
the  slate  rocks,  to  which  it  imparts  a  dark  color  : 
it  also  forms  the  principal  constituent  of  coal. 
When  combined  with  oxygen  it  becomes  aeriform 
and  is  carbonic  acid,  or  fixed  air,  in  this  state,  it 
is  solidified  in  all  limestone  rocks,  forming  near- 
ly 2-5ths  of  their  weight.  It  is  regarded  as  a 
constituent  element,  and  not  derived  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom. 

Potash  and  Soda,  these  alkalies  occur  in  some 
minerals,  but  in  a  very  small  proportion.  Soda 
occurs  abundantly  in  sea  water.  Pure  rock  salt, 
or  sea  salt  contains  about  53  1-2  per  cent  of  So- 
da,  46  1-2  muriatic  acid,  or  chlorine. 


11 

Muriatic  acid,  combined  with  Soda,  is  the  only 
state  in  which  it  is  found  in  rocks ;  except  in 
some  volcanic  rocks  ;  composition  of  muriatic 
acid,  hydrogen  and  chlorine. 

Phosphoric  acid,  is  found  in  a  few  secondary 
limestone  beds,  perhaps  obtained  from  the  de^ 
composition  of  animal  bones. 

The  following  simple  minerals  form  what  is  de^ 
nominoted  the  alphabet  of  Geology,  becausej  by 
means  of  them,  we  are  able  to  spell  out,  or  deter^ 
mine  all  the  rocks  of  the  globe, 

Quartz,  Feldspar,  Mica,  Talc,  Chlorite,  Horn- 
blende, Gypsum,  Limestone  and  Argillite. 

Quartz,  color  various,    hard  and   brittle,  gives 
sparks  with  steal ;  fracture  of  the  crystallized  con- 
choidal ;  uncrystallized  splintery  ;  lustre  vitreous, 
resembling  a  piece  of  polished  cold  tallow.    Oc- 
curs massive,  crystallized,  and  granular,  common 
form  of  the  crystals,  six  sided   prisms  terminated 
by  six  sided  pyramids,  transparent ;  uncrystallized, 
opaque  or  translucent,  sp.  gr.  2.  53,  composed  of 
silex  and  a  small  proportion  of  alumine.     Infusi- 
ble by  itself,  not  acted  upon  by  any  acid   except 
the  fluoric.     It  exists  in  veins  and  in  large   mas- 
ses   forming  mountains.      Fragments   or   crys- 
tals common   in   compound   rocks.      Grains   of 
quartz  form  the  principal   constituent   of  sand- 
stone*     It   forms   the   principal   constituent   of 
flint,  hornestone,    chalcedony,    opal,   agate  &c» 
when  in  combination  with  a  large  portion   of  al- 
umine, Jaspar. 

Feldspar,   is  a  constituent  part  of  numerous 


rocks,  less  hard  than  quartz,  frangible,  laminar  or 
composed  of  thin  plates,  which  may  distinguish 
it  from  quartz,  crystallized  in  four  and  six  sided 
prisms,  whose  length  is  greater  than  the  breadth ; 
lustre  shining,  resembling  the  broken  edge  of  a 
china  cup;  colors,  white,  grey,  red,  reddish  white 
and  green.  Translucent,  or  opaque,  melts  with- 
out the  addition  of  an  alkali,  sp.  gr.  2.  54.  comp. 
silex  63.  17,  alumine  17.  14,  potash  13.  lime  3.  6, 
oxide  of  iron  1 .  Its  fusibility  is  owing  to  the  pot- 
ash in  its  composition. 

It  constitutes  the  principal  constituent  of  most 
rocks  and  light  colored  lavas. 

Mica,  from  micans  glittering,  commonly  called 
Isinglass,  or  muscovy  glass.  Occurs  in  leaves, 
or  lamina,  elastic,  transparent;  colors  yellow,  grey, 
blackish,  brown,  white,  green ;  yields  to  the  knife, 
crystallized  into  six  sided  tables,  or  six  sided 
rhomboidal  prisms,  melts  into  an  enamel ;  sp.  gr. 
about  2.  7. 

Composition,  silex  48.  alumine  34.  35,  potash 
8.  73,  oxide  ofiron  4.  5,  manganese  0.  5,  water 
1.25. 

Talc,  nearly  resembles  mica  in  appearance. 
Flexible,  but  not  elastic,  softer  than  mica,  infusi- 
ble. Color  silvery  white,  or  green,  has  a  soapy 
feel,  yields  to  the  nail ;  lustre  shining  pearly ;  sp, 
gr.  2.  79. 

Comp.  silex  61.  magnesia  30.  5,  potash  2.  75, 
oxide  of  iron  2.  5,  water  0.  5. 

Chlorite,  nearly  resembles  talc,  it  is  of  a  green 
color,  whence  its  name;  lustre  glistening ;  struct- 
ure minutely  foliated  ;  soft  and  rather  unctuous. 


Sp.  gr.  from  2.  6  to  2.  9.  Silex  26.  magnesia  8. 
alumine  18.  6,  oxide  of  iron  43,  muriate  of  soda 
and  Potash  2.  0,  water  2. 

Hornblende^  Fr.  amphibole,  color  black,  or  dark 
bottle  green,  heavier  but  less  hard  than  quartz,  or 
feldspar ;  it  may  be  scratched  with  a  knife,  color 
of  the  streak  light  green,  yields  a  bitter  smell 
when  breathed  on  ;  melts  easily  into  a  black 
glass,  occurs  massive  and  crystallized.  Sp.  gr. 
3.  15,  to  3.  30. 

Composition.  Silex  47.  21,  alumine  13.  94; 
lime  12.  73,  magnesia  21.  86,  Oxide  of  iron 
2.  28 ;  oxide  of  manganese  0.  56  ;  fluoric  acid 
0.  90  ;  water  0.  44. 

Gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime,  color  white,  snow 
white,  and  reddish.  Structure  laminated,  granu- 
lar, crystalized  or  compact,  yields  to  the  nail ; 
does  not  effervesce  with  acids.  Crystalized  gyp- 
sum is  called  selenite.  Sp.  gr.  2.  16,  to  2.  28. 
Composition.  Lime  32.  7,  sulphuric  acid  16.  3, 
water  21.  That  variety  which  has  no  water  in 
its  composition  is  called  anhydrous. 

Limestone,  color  white,  yellow,  brown,  reddish, 
black,  grey,  greenish  and  blue,  effervesces  with 
acids,  yields  to  the  knife,  infusible,  sp.  gr.  2.  6. 
Composition.  Lime  57.  Carbonic  acid  43.  Mag- 
nesian  limestone  is  sometimes  called  Dolomite. 

ArgiUite,  color  bluish,  or  greenish  grey,  lus- 
tre silky,  yields  to  the  knife;  emits  an  argilla- 
cous  odour  when  breathed  on  ;  roof  slate  and 
cyphering  slate  afford  good  examples  of  argillite. 
Sp.  gr.  2.  5.  Composition.  Silex,  48  ;  alumine 
25.  5,  magnesia  1.6;  oxide  of  iron  11.  3  ;  oxide 
B 


14 


of  manganese  0.  5  ;  potash  4.  7  ;  carbon  0.  3 : 
water  7.  6. 


On  Stratification. 

Stratum  signifies  a  bed,  and  in  geology,  it  is 
applied  to  a  bed  of  rocks,  or  a  deposite. 

When  a  stratum  of  rocks  of  a  different  kind 
invariably  covers  another  stratum,  it  is  said  to  be 
in  the  order  of  superposition. 

The  strata  seldom  occur  in  a  flat  or  horizontal 
position,  but  generally  rise  in  a  certain  direction 
and  come  to  the  surface  ;  and  in  travelling  over 
a  country,  we  pass  over  their  edges  which  are 
called  the  outcrop,  which  shows  the  different 
strata.  We  can  thus  ascertain  the  contents  with- 
out boring. 

Formations,  are  a  series  of  strata  that  are  re- 
garded as  being  formed  nearly  at  the  same  time. 

Geological  Formation,  is  where  strata  of  differ- 
ent kinds  graduate  into  each  other,  containing 
similar  species  of  organic  remains. 

Coal  Formation,  is  where  strata  of  shale  grey- 
wacke  sandstone  and  iron  stone  accompany  beds 
of  coal. 


15 

The  formation  of  a  rock  implies  the  agent  by 
which  the  rock  is  formed,  or  consolidated,  and 
a  rock  formation  the  effect  produced  by  the  agent. 

The  line  of  bearing  is  the  lengthwise  direction 
of  strata. 

The  line  of  Dip  is  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of 
bearing. 

Inclination,  is  the  angle  at  which  the  stratum 
rises  above  the  horizontal  line. 

Saddle  back,  is  where  the  stratum  dips  both 
ways,  in  the  form  of  the  letter  V  inverted. 

The  anticlinal  line,  is  a  line  traced  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  country  to  designate  where  the  strata 
dip  in  opposite  directions. 

The  true  thickness  of  a  stratum  is  measured  by 
a  line  perpendicular  to  the  upper  and  under  sur- 
face, 

In  many  instances,  strata  are  bent  and  contort- 
ed in  various  directions,  in  this  case,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  find  the  true  dip,  or  even  to  ascertain  the 
class  to  which  the  rocks  belong. 

Rocks  of  the  primary  class,  frequently  cover 
each  other  in  an  order,  which  when  viewed  on  a 
grand  scale,  may  be  said  to  be  conformable,  but 
the  order  of  succession  is  not  always  easy  to  trace. 
Viewed,  however,  in  mountain  chains,  the  gene- 
ral arrangement  is  1 .  Granite,  2.  Gneiss,  3.  Mica 
slate,  4.  Argillite,  5.  transition  series,  6.  the  low- 
er strata  with  coal,  7*  a  bed  of  Limestone,  or  any 
other  rock  in  a  slate  mountain,  this  is  said  to  be 
subordinate.  A  bed  of  conglomerate,  or  grey- 
wacke  composed  of  boulders  and  fragments  of 
lower  rocks  is  frequently  interposed  between  slate 
rocks  and  transition  limestone 


16 

Unconformable  rocks,  are  Basalt,  Serpentinef 
Porphyry,  Hornblende  &,c. 

Unstratified  unconformable  rocks,  occur  cover- 
ing primary,  transition,  secondary  and  tertiary 
strata.  Those  covering  secondary  and  tertiary 
strata  are  evidently  the  product  of  subterranean 
fire,  ejected  from  beneath  by  some  violent  explo- 
sion. Those  also  which  cover  primary  and  tran- 
sition strata  bear  strong  evidence  of  igneous  ori- 
gin. 

These  changes  undoubtedly  preceded  the  exis- 
tence of  the  human  race,  at  an  epoch  very  re- 
mote. Many  inequalities  of  the  earth's  surface 
must  be  asscribed  to  these  great  catastrophes, 
and  inundations  which  appear  to  be  nearly  con- 
temporaneous*  and  it  would  be  absurd  to  suppose, 
that  they  could  have  been  produced,  in  every 
part  of  the  world  while  man  existed.  Such  a  sup- 
position would  be  contrary  to  the  known  and  per- 
manent laws  of  nature. 

Longitudinal  valleys  are  those  in  the  direction 
of  mountain  ranges. 

Transversal  valleys  are  those  which  cut  through 
ranges  of  mountains. 

Lateral  valleys  are  those  which  open  into  a 
larger  valley  nearly  at  right  angles  to  it. 

Mountains  generally  form  groups,  except  those 
which  are  volcanic  and  compose  long  and  lofty 
ridges,  denominated  mountain  chains. 

The  principal  mountains  of  Europe  and  Asia 
form  one  immense  chain,  commencing  at  Cape 
Finisterre  in  Spain,  and  extending  to  the  eastern 
extremity  of  Asia.  It  is  known  by  different 


17 

names  in  different  countries.  As,  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  Mount  Taurus,  Caucasus,  Altaic  and  Him- 
malah  mountains,  and  the  Yobblony  in  Tartary, 
extending  nearly  to  Behring's  straits,  these  divide 
the  northern  and  southern  dry  land  both  in  Eu- 
rope and  Asia. 

One  immense  chain  of  mountains  runs  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  North  and  South  America,  a  dis- 
tance of  eight  thousand  miles,  called  the  Andes 
and  Rocky  mountains.  Mountain  ranges  pre- 
sent the  steepest  declivities  on  that  side  nearest 
the  sea. 

The  strata  of  lofty  mountains  are  generally 
much  inclined,  and  sometimes  nearly  vertical. 
Sometimes  beds  of  limestone  occur  containing 
marine  shells,  which  must  have  been  deposited 
at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  afterwards  raised 
up  by  some  violent  convulsion,  together  with  the 
accompanying  strata. 


On  the  Primitive  formation. 

Those  rocks  denominated  primary  are  widely 
spread  over  the  globe  in  the  lowest  relative  situa- 
tion, and  contain  no  remains  of  organic  beings. 

They  are  supposed  to  constitute  the  foundation 
on  which  other  rocks  lie,  and  to  be  the  first 
deposites  made  after  the  creation.  The  same 
causes  which  have  produced  granite  and  other 
primary  rocks  below  all  others  have  in  some  in- 
stances reproduced  them,  covering  rocks  of  the 
transition  and  secondary  class.  Granite  is  found 
covering  secondary  rocks,  and  sometimes  obtrud- 
ed between  them.  To  account  for  this,  we  must 
suppose  granite  like  volcanic  rocks  was  once  in 
a  state  of  fusion,  and  was  protruded  in  this  state 
through  the  upper  rocks.  Similar  facts  are  ob- 
served with  regard  to  other  primary  rocks,  which 
are  believed  to  be  oi  igneous  formation. 

The  subordinate  rocks  which  occur  among  pri- 
mary and  also  among  the  transition  and  secon- 
dary are, 

Hornblende,  Serpentine,  Crystalline  limestone, 
and  Quartz  rock. 


19 


GRANITE. 

Granite  is  found  at  the  lowest  depths  at  which 
man  has  penetrated,  forming  vast  mountains. 
Where  it  rises  above  the  surface  other  rocks  rise 
towards  it,  and  their  angles  of  elevation  increase 
as  they  approach  it.  Proper  granite  is  consider- 
ed as  a  crystaline  unstratified  rock.  It  is  essen- 
tially composed  of  quartz,  feldspar  and  mica, 
which  vary  much  in  their  proportions  in  different 
specimens.  These  are  denominated  by  different 
names.  In  general,  the  quartz  is  grey,  sometimes 
smoky,  blue,  yellow  and  green.  The  feldspar 
white,  reddish,  green,  or  blue,  and  sometimes 
tinged  with  purple.  The  mica  is  commonly  of  a 
silvery  white,  but  sometimes  brown,  grey,  black 
and  red. 

Feldspar  constitutes,  in  general,  the  largest 
constituent.  Other  minerals  occasionally  com- 
bine to  constitute  granite,  as  talc,  Chlorite  &c. 

The  following  varieties  are  often  found  asso- 
ciated. 

1.  Pseudomorphous  granite,  where  the  quartz 
and  feldspar  are  associated  into  a  solid  mass  and 
the  mass  penetrated  by  thin  plates  of  mica,  not 
intersecting  each  other.     The  smallest  fragments 
of  the  quartz  and  feldspar  are  often  separated  by 
thin  plates,  the  solid  angles  appear  like  the  pro- 
jecting angles  of  crystals. 

2.  Porphyritic  granite,  this,  besides  the  seve- 
ral constituents,   contains  imbedded  crystals  of 
feldspar,  some  is  fine  grained,  but  in  this  country 
it  is  coarse  grained, 


20 

3.  Graphic  granite^   this  variety  consists  of 
quartz  and  feldspar  only,  the  ingredients  are  us- 
ually  in   lengthwise   pieces,   so   that   the    cross 
fracture  presents  the  appearance  of  Chinese  char- 
acters.    The  French  geologists  have  given  it  the 
name  of  Pegmatite. 

4.  Sienite,  or  Sienitic  granite,  in  which  Horn- 
blende wholly,  or  in  part,  supplies  the  place  of 
mica.      This  is  for  the  most  part  tougher  and 
more  durable  than  common  granite. 

5.  Talcy,  or  Chloritic  Granite,  is  composed  of 
quartz,  feldspar  and  talc,  or  chlorite.     This  is  a 
softer  species  than  the  preceding.     It  is  called 
by  some  protogene. 

Granite  occurs  in  masses  of  vast  thickness, 
which  are  commonly  divided  by  fissures  into 
blocks  which  approach  to  rhomboidal,  or  pretty 
regular  polyhedral  form.  Sometimes  a  colum- 
nar structure  is  given  to  granite  mountains,  in 
other  instances,  when  the  quantity  of  mica  is  con- 
siderable, granite  divides  into  parallel  layers,  or 
plates,  that  have  been  mistaken  for  strata.  Some- 
times it  is  found  in  globular  masses  composed  of 
concentric  layers  imbedded  in  other  granite,  and 
detached. 

The  aspect  of  granite  mountains  is  various,  of- 
ten disintegrating,  sometimes  heavy  and  unpic- 
turesque. 

Where  hard  and  soft  granite  are  intermixed  in 
the  same  mountain,  the  softer  granite  is  disinte- 
grated and  falls  to  pieces,  and  the  harder  blocks 
remain  piled  in  confusion  on  each  other  like  an 
immense  mass  of  ruins. 


21 

Wherever  granite  rises  high  above  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  the  strata  of  limestone  and  other 
rocks  rise  towards  it. 

Granite  is  found  to  occur  at  a  lower  level  in 
America  than  in  Europe.  This  is  an  important 
geological  fact. 

Granite  sometimes  forms  veins  shooting  up  in- 
to the  superincumbent  strata ;  which  seems  to 
indicate  either  that  the  granite  has  been  in  a 
state  of  fusion,  the  heat  of  which  has  softened  the 
upper  rocks,  and  forced  up  the  granite  in  a  melt- 
ed state  into  those  fissures,  or  else,  that  the  gran- 
ite and  the  superincumbent  rocks  were  both  in  a 
state  of  fusion  at  the  same  time,  and  therefore 
contemporaneous. 

The  crystallized  earthy  minerals  most  common- 
ly found  in  granite  are  Schorl,  Tourmaline,  Prehn- 
ite  or  Finite,  Emerald,  Corindon,  Axinite  and 
Topaz. 

Granite  is  not  rich  in  metallic  veins. 


Gneiss,  Mica-Slate  &c. 

Where  one  rock  occurs  imbedded  in  another, 
it  is  evident  that  the  enclosed  rock  must  be  as  old 
as  the  rock  which  enclosed  it.  Hence  the  rocks 
enclosed  in  granite,  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  must 
be  regarded  as  primary  though  unconformable. 

Gneiss  received  its  name  from  the  German 
miners,  and  is  applied  to  a  stratified  granite ;  be- 
ing composed  of  the  same  constituents  as  granite. 
Granite  frequently  passes  into  gneiss,  it  often 
happens,  that  in  the  same  bed,  granite  may  exist 
in  one  part  and  gneiss  in  another.  Where  the 
quantity  of  feldspar  decreases,  and  the  crystals  or 
grains  become  smaller,  if  the  mica  increases  in 
quantity  and  is  arranged  in  layers  the  rock  loses 
its  massive  structure  and  becomes  slaty,  it  is  then 
what  is  termed  gneiss  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
quantity  of  feldspar  increases  and  the  mica  di- 
minishes, the  structure  becomes  massive ;  and 
granite  is  the  result. 

When  the  mica  becomes  very  abundant  and  the 
other  constituents  are  small,  it  passes  into  mica 
elate. 


23 

The  following  are  the  several  kinds  of  gneiss. 

1 .  Granitic  gneiss,  which  is  a  species  of  coarse 
grained  granite,  and  in  hand  specimens,  often  ex- 
hibits no   traces  of  a  schistose   structure  ;  but 
when  viewed  in  place  on  a  large  scale  ;   some 
traces  of  a  slaty  structure  may  be  observed, 

2.  Schistose  gneiss,  this  is  considered  to  be  the 
most  common  variety  ;  the  structure  is  foliated, 
and  granular  with  a  laminar  tendency ;  it  passes 
into  mica  slate  by  the  disappearance  of  feldspar. 

3.  Laminar  gneiss,  in  this  variety  different  ingre- 
dients occupy  distinct  layers  ;  when  the  mica,  or 
hornblende  is  black,  the  different  laminar  are  dis- 
tinct and  regular.     It  sometimes  exhibits  alter- 
nating layers  of  gneiss  and  mica-slate. 

4.  Porphyritic  gneiss,  structure  more  or  less 
slaty  with  distinct  masses  of  foliated  feldspar,  of 
an  ovoid  form,  or  distinct  crystals.     Color  white, 
grey,  or  reddish. 

5.  Amphibolic  gneiss,  containing  a  small  pro- 
portion of  hornblende  not  sufficient  to  form  horn- 
blende slate.     The  hornblende  is  disseminated  in 
black  foliated  masses  from  the  size  of  a  pin's  head 
to  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  through  the  rock. 
Found  in  the  vicinity  of  hornblende  slate. 

6.  Epidotic  gneiss,  containing  hornblende  and 
epidote.     The  epidote  is  usually  in  veins,  and 
generally  compact.     It  is  sometimes  disseminated 
through  the  rocks,  giving  it  a  peculiar  green  tinge. 

7.  Augitic  gneiss,    in    this   augite   takes   the 
place  of  the  mica,  and  is  of  a  lively  green  color. 
The  augite  is  disseminated  in  various  proportions 
through  the  mass,  and  the  slaty  structure  is  quite 
indistinct. 


8-.  Anthophyllitic  gneiss,  in  this  variety  antho 
phyllite  is  disseminated  through  the  gneiss.  It  is 
composed  almost  entirely  of  quartz,  feldspar  and 
anthophyllite,  the  mica  being  rare. 

9.  Arenaceous  gneiss,  composed  of  quartz  and 
feldspar  which  are  in  a  finely  granular  state,  em- 
bracing sometimes  small  but  distinct  crystals  of 
red  garnet. 

10.  Talcose    gneiss,,  composed    of   feldspar, 
quartz  and  talc,  in  structure  irregularly  schistose. 

The  declivities  of  granite  mountains,  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  are  covered  with  gneiss. 
Mountains  of  gneiss  are  not  so  steep  and  broken 
as  those  of  granite,  and  the  summits  are  generally 
rounded, 

MICA-SLATE. 

This  is  frequently  incumbent  on  gneiss,  or  gran* 
ite,  it  passes  by  gradation  into  both  these  rocks. 

It  is  composed  essentially  of  mica  arid  quartz 
intimately  combined.  The  feldspar  occurs  only 
occasionally. 

Color  silvery,  or  pearly  white,  bluish  grey, 
light  green,  blackish  or  amethystine,  inclining  to 
yellow. 

The  following  are  varieties. 

1 .  Quartz  and  mica,  the  former  granular  and  lam- 
inar ;  the  latter  in  distinct  scales  and  glistening. 
This  is  more  highly  crystalline  than  the  other  va- 
rieties, and  is  associated  with  the  older  rocks. 

2.  Containing  a  larger  proportion  of  feldspar 
and  passing  into  gneiss. 

Talco — Micaceous  slate,  containing  scales  of 


25 

greenish  talc  or  mica  which  has  lost  its  elasticity. 
When  the  talc  predominates  it  becomes  talcous 
slate. 

4.  Amphibolic  and  Garnitiferous  Mica  slate,  con- 
taining hornblende  and  garnets. 

5.  Sraurotidiferous   Mica  slate.     Mica  in  fine 
scales  and  resembling  argillite,  except  when  the 
strata  are  viewed  edgewise,  they  exhibit  a  striped 
appearance,  in  consequence  of  numerous  layers 
of  Staurotide,  which  appears  coextensive  with  the 
layers  of  the  rock. 

6.  Spangled  Mica  slate,  the  basis  the  same  as 
the  last,  through  it  are  disseminated  numerous 
thin  foliated  plates  of  a  deep  brown  color,  some- 
what resembling  mica,  but  destitute  of  elasticity^ 
and  brittle,  their  length,  rarely  more  than  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch,   usually  twice  as  great  as  their 
breadth,  exhibiting  polarity  iu  their  arrangement, 
that  is,  their  longer  axes  all  lie  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, and  the  surfaces  of  the  plates  in  the  same  or 
in  parallel  planes,  so  as  to  reflect  light  from  many 
of  them  at  once,  and  thus  a  spangled  appearance 
is  produced.     These  spangles  are  pretty  uniform- 
ly diffused. 

7.  Argillo — Micaceous  slate.    This  exists  when- 
ever the  mica  slate  passes  by  gradation  into  clay 
slate.     Composed  of  fine  scales  of  mica,  closely 
compacted  so  as  to  give  it  an  argillaceous  ap- 
pearance.    This  rock  sometimes  contains  large 
beds  of  white  quartz,  sometimes  fetid. 

8.  Arenaceous  Mica  slate.     In  this  variety,  tha 
quartz  is  grey,  in  sandy  grains  and  diffused  through 
the  whole  mass,  not  lamellar.     The  mica  is  in 

c 


26 

fine  disseminated  scales  although  the  plates  are 
usually  parallel  to  each  other.  The  mass  is 
frequently  imperfectly  schistose,  though  more 
regularly  stratified  than  many  other  varieties ; 
and  sometimes  there  exists  a  double  set  of  strata 
seams  ;  an  intermediate  variety  is  remarkably  ir- 
regular. In  general  it  occupies  the  highest  place 
in  mica  slate.  It  is  very  nearly  allied  to  quartz 
rock. 

9.  Anthracitous  Mica  slate.     This  is  simply  a 
very  fine  grained  mica  slate,  approximating  to 
clay  slate,  ii  is  rendered  black  and  shining  by 
carbon. 

10.  Plumbagineous  Mica  slate,  this  exhibits  the 
grey  aspect  of  plumbago. 

1 1 .  Conglomerate  mica  slate,  this  contains  frag- 
ments of  mica  slate  cemented  by  the  hydrate  of 
iron,  so  as  to  form  a  conglomerate. 

The  mica  slate  and  the  quartzose  rocks,  are 
with  those  of  gneiss,  according  to  M.  Brongniart, 
so  clearly  prior  to  all  organic  life,  that  he  calls 
them  hypozoiques,  or  inferior  to  all  the  rocks 
which  contain  organic  remains.  We  hence  infer, 
that  all  these  rocks  were  formed  and  arranged 
before  vegetables  and  animals  appeared.  The 
universal  absence  of  all  organic  remains  in  these 
masses,  has  led  every  one  to  this  conclusion  as  a 
satisfactory  certainty. 

Most  of  the  minerals  and  ores  found  in  gneiss 
also  occur  in  mica  slate,  Limestone,  (crystalline) 
and  Hornblende  rock  occur  in  both,  Also 
most  of  the  metallic  ores  both  in  veins  and  beds. 
Also  crystals  of  garnets  are  interspersed.  Gneiss 


27 

and  mica  slate  sometimes  graduate  into  granite, 
as  well  as  into  each  other. 

Talcose  slate  and  chlorite  slate,  appear  to  be 
different  modifications  of  the  same  minerals;  the 
prevailing  color  of  both  is  green.  These  rocks 
are  soft  and  of  a  soapy  feel.  Easily  cut  with  a 
knife.  The  passage  from  talcose  slate  to  serpen- 
tine forms  potstone. 

Steatite  or  soap  stone  is  a  variety  of  talc,  com- 
monly called  talcose  rock,  the  two  minerals  occur 
together  and  mix  with  each  other. 

Granular  Limestone,  when  pure,  it  is  composed 
of  calcareous  earth,  this  is  the  saccharine  lime- 
stone of  the  French  geologists.  It  contains  no 
organic  remains,  and  is,  therefore,  considered  as 
primary.  It  is  yellowish,  greenish,  or  inclining  to 
red.  It  frequently  contains  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  siliceous  earth,  to  which  it  owes  its  hard- 
ness. 

That  this  limestone  has  once  been  in  a  state  of 
fusion,  is  evident  from  the  crystals  of  garnets  and 
other  minerals  found  imbedded  in  it. 

Dolomite,  called  from  the  French,  Dolomieu. 
is  a  variety  of  limestone,  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  magnesia.  It  is  found  in  various  rocks. 
It  is  minutely  granular.  Color  white,  often  with 
a  tinge  of  yellow  or  grey.  Occurs  massive,  often 
of  a  slaty  texture,  lustre  glimmering,  often  trans- 
lucent on  the  edges.  Softer  than  primitive  lime- 
stone, which  it  often  resembles.  Dolomite  forms 
vast  beds  in  many  rocks.  It  is  strictly  a  magne- 
sian  carbonate  of  lime. 

Serpentine,  derived  its  name  from  its  variegated 


. 


28 

colors  and  spots,  supposed,  in  some  specimens,  to 
resemble  the  spotted  serpent's  skin.  Color  green, 
yellowish  green,  blackish  green,  brown,  bluish 
grey,  or  reddish,  colors  variously  intermixed ; 
opaque,  or  translucent  on  the  edges ;  occurs 
massive,  and  crystallized.  Crystals  in  the  form 
of  four  sided  prisms,  terminated  by  four  sided  pyr- 
amids. Composition,  Magnesia  44,  silex  44, 
allumine  2,  oxide  of  iron  7.  3,  oxide  of  manganess 
1.  5,  oxide  of  chrome  2.  Infusible.  When  bro- 
ken it  has  a  slight  degree  of  lustre,  and  some- 
what of  a  soapy  feel.  It  is  sometimes  stratified 
and  sometimes  uristratified.  It  occurs  in  gneiss 
and  mica  and  talcose  slate  as  well  as  in  some  of 
the  superincumbent  rocks.  Actynolite,  Asbestus, 
massive  garnet  &c.  are  occasionally  found  in  this 
rock.  Its  true  nature  and  geological  relation^ 
are  but  obscurely  determined. 

Hornblende  rock  and  Hornblende  slate.  Color, 
when  it  forms  the  principal  parts  of  rocks,  is  com- 
monly a  greenish  black.  Massive  hornblende  in 
rocks  is  generally  coarsely  granular  and  lamellar. 
In  hornblende  slate  it  is  generally  radiated  and 
fibrous,  and  when  the  fibres  are  very  minute  it 
possesses  a  velvety  lustre. 

Hornblende  slate  occurs  in  beds  in  granite, 
gneiss  and  mica  slate,  and  occasionally  in  com- 
mon slate,  it  appears  to  pass  by  gradation  into 
serpentine,  the  change  is  effected  by  the  increase 
of  magnesia. 

Hornblende  in  large  lamellar  grains  intermixed 
with  feldspar  forms  sienite. 

When  hornblende  and  feldspar  are  more  inti- 


29 

mately  blended  they  form  Greenstone,  Diabase, 
Diorite. 

Various  intermixtures  of  Hornblende  and  Feld- 
spar form  rocks  commonly  called  trap  rock,  or 
greenstone  trap. 

Compact  trap',  is  basalt, or  Dolerite  of  the  French. 

Porphyry,  derives  its  name  from  the  Greek  and 
signifies  purple,  because  the  rock  to  which  the 
term  was  originally  applied  was  of  that  color.  In 
the  modern  acceptation  of  the  term,  any  rock 
which  is  compact,  or  finely  granular,  and  con- 
tains distinct  imbedded  crystals  of  feldspar,  is 
called  porphyry.  The  base,  or  paste  of  most 
porphyritic  rocks  is  feldspar,  and  the  imbedded 
crystals  are  for  the  most  part  feldspar. 

Geologists  have  described  four  formations  of 
porphyry,  but  their  situations  are  not  accurately 
ascertained. 

Whenever  porphyry  occurs  unconformably, 
covering  other  rocks,  it  is  evidently  more  recent 
than  the  rock  on  which  it  rests,  and  must  be 
classed  with  basaltic  or  trap  rocks. 


c2 


Of  the  Transition  class  &c. 

Transition,  or  intermediate  rocks  cover  rocks 
of  the  primary  class,  and  are  the  lowest  rocks  in 
which  organic  remains  occur. 

They  are  the  principal  repositories  of  metallic 
ores,  metallic  veins  and  beds.  Metallic  veins  very 
rarely  occur  in  secondary  strata. 

The  following  arrangement  of  transition  rocks 
comprises  the  lowest  rocks  in  which  organic  re- 
mains occur,  and  which  are  metalliferous,  or  as- 
sociated with  metalliferous  rocks. 

Conformable  strata. 

1,  Argillite,  as  also  flinty  slate  and  other  vari- 
eties. 

2.  Greywacl^e  and  greywacke  slate,  passing 
into  sand  stone. 

.  3.  Transition  Limestone,  Mountain  Limestone. 

Rocks  covering  transition  unconformably. 

1 .  Porphyry,  passing  into  trap  and  greenstone. 

2.  Clink  stone,  passiing  into  Basalt. 

3.  Basalt. 


31 

Strata  covering  transition  rocks  conformably. 

Coal  Formation. 

Argillite,  of  which  roof  slate  and  cyphering 
slate  are  varieties  ;  the  softer  kind  found  in  coal 
districts  is  called  by  some  Geologists  Slate-clay. 

Argillite  most  commonly  splits  in  a  transverse 
direction  to  that  of  the  beds,  unless  it  be  of  a 
kind  approaching  to  shale. 

Slate  rocks  vary  much  in  quality  in  the  same 
mountain,  those  which  contain  a  great  portion  of 
silex  pass  into  siliceous  slate,  when  they  contain 
a  great  quantity  of  magnesia  they  pass  into  chlo- 
rite or  talcy  slate,  or  talco-chloritic  slate.  Whet- 
stone slate,  or  hone,  is  a  variety  of  talcy  slate 
containing  fine  grains  of  silex. 

Roof  slate  is  generally  imbedded  in  other  rocks 
and  does  not  form  mountain  masses. 

The  beds  of  roof  slate  sometimes  form  masses 
of  considerable  thickness. 

Those  varieties  of  roof  slate  are  preferred 
which  are  the  least  absorbant  of  moisture,  have 
the  smoothest  surface  and  split  into  thin  laminae. 

The  mineral  contents  of  slate  are  Chiostolite, 
Octahedral  iron  ore,  Iron  pyrites,  Calcareous 
spar,  Crystallized  quartz  &,c. 

Mountains  of  slate  are  seldom  so  precipitous 
as  those  of  granite,  but  have  often  a  serrated 
outline,  or  rising  in  aiguilles,  or  needles.  They 
are  covered  with  verdure  on  their  declivities,  as 
they  are  absorbant  of  moisture. 

Flinty  slate  differs  from  common  slate  in  con- 
taining a  greater  proportion  of  siliceous  earth 
and  partakes  of  the  nature  of  flint.  Slate  and 
flinty  slate  alternate  ;  When  flinty  slate  ceases 


32 

to  have  the  slaty  structure  it  becomes  hornstone, 
or  petrosilex.  If  it  contains  crystals  of  feldspar, 
it  becomes  hornstone  porphyry. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  metalliferous  rocks. 

Greywacke  and  greywacke  slate,  called  by  the 
French  Traumate,  from  the  Greek  Thrausma^  a 
fragment.  This  comprises  an  interesting  group 
of  rocks,  partly  chemical,  and  partly  mechanical 
in  their  structure.  The  varieties  are  numerous 
and  very  unlike  each  other.  It  includes,  when 
taken  in  a  more  general  sense,  every  conglome- 
rate sandstone,  and  fragmentous  or  arenaceous 
rock  of  transition  formation,  that  is  anterior  to  the 
red  sandstone  and  coal  formation.  The  varieties 
of  rock  included  in  this  formation  are,  conglome- 
rate, Breccias,  Quartz  rock,  talcose  aggregate, 
Classical  Greywacke,  Greywacke  slate,  Argilla- 
ceous slate,  Amphibolic  aggregate,  Varioloid 
wacke,  Flinty  slate,  Chert,  Jasper,  Greywacke 
Limestone. 

Several  species  of  calamites,  Equisetae,  and 
Filices  are  found  in  the  shistose  Greywacke,  in 
Seekonk,  Mass.  Some  of  immense  size  ;  one 
fragmentary  specimen  measured  eighteen  inches 
in  circumference,  having  a  jointed  and  striated 
stem,  and  appears  to  be  the  Calamites  Canncefor~ 
mis  of  De  la  Beche.  It  was  found  in  greywacke 
slate.  Other  specimens  have  been  found  in  the 
same  locality,  having  the  ends  and  part  of  the 
stem  converted  to  coal.  Similar  specimens  have 
been  found  in  Taunton,  in  the  same  kind  of  Grey 
wacke. 

This  rock  varies  in  texture  from  the  finest  ar- 


33 

gillaceous  slate  and  shale  through  all  the  grades 
of  sandstone  up  to  the  coarsest  conglomerate,  and 
breccia.  The  imbedded  nodules  are  composed 
of  all  the  variety  of  primary  rocks,  cemented  by 
an  argillaceous  paste,  or  compact  feldspar,  or  of 
mica,  talc  or  steatite.  Proving  almost  incorites- 
tibly,  that  the  formation  has  been  the  effect  of  ig- 
neous action  and  of  some  tremendous  explosion. 
'*  Conglomerate,  composed  of  roundish  pebbles, 
which  have  all  the  appearance  of  having  been 
worn  by  a  continual  friction  against  each  other 
by  the  force  of  water,  resembling  the  pebbles  found 
on  the  sea  shore.  Varying  in  size  from  that  of 
a  pea,  to  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  They  con- 
sist of  granite,  sienite,  compact  feldspar,  Porphy- 
ry, quartz,  argillaceous  and  flinty  slate,  novac- 
ulite,  serpentine  and  nephrite ;  cemented  with 
the  same  materials,  and  exhale  an  argillaceous 
odor  when  breathed  on.  The  cement  is  semi- 
crystalline,  and  adheres  very  firmly  to  the  nodules. 
Breccia,  this  differs  from  the  conglomerate,  by 
the  angular  shape  of  the  imbedded  fragments, 
the  cement  appears  to  be  composed  of  the  imbed- 
ded fragments  in  a  comminuted  state. 

Quartz  rock,  this  is  associated  with  most  rock 
formations  but  is  particularly  conspicuous  in  grey- 
wacke,  forming  veins  as  well  as  disseminated.  It 
is  of  various  colors.  It  occurs  massive  and  crys- 
tallized, sometimes  exhibiting  the  regular  form,  at 
other  times  indeterminate.  It  is  one  of  the  old- 
est of  the  grey  wacke  formations.  Certain  local 
causes  appear  to  have  operated  to  separate  the 
quartz  and  feldspar  from  the  granite,  into  masses 
of  considerable  size. 


34 

Talcose  aggregate,  this  is  a  slaty  rock  compos- 
ed of  grains  of  quartz  and  sometimes  feldspar, 
with  talc  or  steatite.  It  is  not  abundant  in  the 
greywacke  formation,  though  many  of  the  oldest 
varieties  have  the  talcy  appearance. 

Classical  greywacke,  this  is  composed  of  angu- 
lar or  other  shaped  masses  of  quartz,  feldspar, 
Lydian  stone,  and  clay  slate,  connected  together 
by  means  of  a  basjfe  or  ground  of  the  nature  of 
clay  slate,  which  is  often  highly  impregnated  with 
silex,  thus  giving  to  the  rock  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  hardness.  The  imbedded  portions  vary 
in  size,  but  seldom  exceed  a  few  inches  in  breadth 
and  thickness.  Sometimes  the  mass  is  colored 
red  by  the  presence  of  the  red  oxide  of  iron.  It 
often  occurs  fine  grained  and  passes  into  grey- 
wacke slate. 

Greywacke  slate,  structure  slaty,  colors  either 
grey  or  red,  composed  in  a  great  measure  of 
wacke,  and  sometimes  mica  enters  into  the  com- 
position. The  layers  generally  irregular  and 
contorted.  It  is  frequently  traversed  by  veins  of 
quartz. 

Argillaceous  slate,  or  argillite,  this  is  associated 
with  greywacke  especially  in  coal  districts  ;  the 
laminae  are  sometimes  much  curved,  it  frequently 
passes  into  novaculite. 

Amphibolic  aggregate  is  situated  between  grey- 
wacke slate  and  conglomerate,  its  color  is  green- 
ish or  grey,  containing  a  green  mineral  resembling 
hornblende,  sometimes  crystalline. 

Varioloid  Wacke,  usually  called  amygdaloid  ;  the 
color  is  either  grey  or  dark  chocolate  containing 


35 

numerous  nodules  of  the  size  of  a  pea  of  different 
colors,  mostly  red  or  green,  consisting  mostly  of 
compact  feldspar.  This  formation  appears  to  be 
the  result  of  heat  and  steam,  occasioned  by  infil- 
tration through  the  melted  mass. 

Flinty  slate  is  associated  with  greywacke  in 
many  places.  It  appears  to  be  produced  by  the 
proximity  of  granite,  porphyry,  or  talc.  It  is  an 
altered  variety  of  the  greywacke.  This  rock  ex- 
hibits scarcely  any  marks  of  stratificatioa  ;  but  in 
some  masses,  the  former  slaty  structure  is  dis- 
tinctly visible.  In  fine,  it  appears  to  be  the  grey- 
wacke slate  fused  and  indurated. 

Chert,  associated  with  greywacke,  appears  to 
be  an  argillaceous  limestone  converted  by  fusion. 
It  is  often  found  with  limestone.  It  is  grey  pass- 
ing into  blackish  brown ;  fracture  conchoidal,  or 
splintery  ;  lustre  glistening  between  resinous  and 
vitreous  semitransparent  or  translucent. 

Jasper,  this  is  associated  often  with  greywacke, 
and  is  evidently  the  result  of  an  high  degree  of 
temperature.  It  differs  little  from  a  siliceous  flin- 
ty slate,  is  generally  colored  red,  brown,  or  yel- 
low, opaque.  In  some  situations  beds  of  Jasper 
alternate  with  slate.  Lydian  stone  is  sometimes 
called  black  Jasper.  Its  color  is  generally  owing 
to  the  peroxide  of  iron  which  is  converted  from 
the  protoxide  by  heat.  It  also  contains  clay  and 
silex,  originally  slate  impregnated  with  the  prot- 
oxide of  iron  ;  the  iron  afforded  a  flux  for  the 
fusion  of  slate,  and  thus  Jasper  would  be  pro- 
duced. 

Transition  limestone,  Greywacke  limestone,  tex- 


36 

lure  subcrystalline,  translucent  on  the  edges  ; 
most  of  the  colored  marbles  are  transition  lime- 
stone. Colors,  bluish,  grey,  red,  brown,  black, 
sometimes  veined,  striped  and  spotted.  It  occurs 
in  beds,  alternating  with  slate,  greywacke,  grey- 
wacke  slate  and  coarse  gritstone. 

The  strata  are  usually  bent  and  contorted.  It 
contains  a  great  variety  of  marine  shells  and 
must  therefore  have  been  formed  under  the  ocean, 
and  as  it  contains  trap  and  amygdaloid,  it  must 
have  been  subjected  to  violent  igneous  action. 

Some  of  this  limestone  is  metalliferous,  con- 
taining iron,  lead,  zinc  and  copper. 

Many  of  the  organic  jremains  in  the  transition 
rocks  are  of  genera,  which  do  not  occur  in  the 
secondary  rocks,  as  encrinites,  madrepores  and 
coralites.  Vegetable  remains,  except  in  slate 
rocks,  are  rare.  The  trilobite  is  peculiar  to  tran- 
sition rocks.  Orthoceratites,  gryphites  and  num- 
mulites  are  found  in  this  formation. 

Conformable  transition  rocks  cover  the  prima- 
ry and  sometimes  alternate  with  them,  they  are 
also  associated  with  the  lower  beds  of  the  coal 
formation. 

All  rocks  under  the  great  coal  formation  be- 
long to  the  primary,  or  transition,  and  all  above, 
when  conformable,  belong  to  the  secondary  or 
tertiary  formations. 

Where  the  coal  is  absent,  it  is  not  easy  to  define 
the  different  formations. 


Coal  Formation. 

^Previously  to  arriving  at  the  present  formation, 
we  have  discovered  but  few  remains  of  terrestrial 
Vegetables,  or  animals,  hence  we  infer  that  there 
were  but  few  islands  or  tracts  of  dry  land  emerg- 
ed from  the  water.  But  we  are  now  to  contem- 
plate a  most  important  and  extensive  change  in 
the  condition  of  the  globe,  at  least,  in  that  part  in 
which  coal  is  found. 

For  a  depth  of  two  thousand  feet  or  more,  al- 
most exclusively,  the  remains  of  terrestrial  plants 
are  found ;  such  as  have  grown  on  dry  land,  or 
in  marshes.  Carbon,  in  the  form  of  coal,  consti- 
tutes extensive  beds  in  the  series,  varying  in  thick- 
ness from  a  few  inches  to  thirty  feet,  or  more, 
alternating  with  beds  of  shale,  argillite,  grey  wacke, 
grey  wacke  slate,  iron  stone,  indulated  clay,  quartz 
rock,  sandstone  &c.  In  this,  the  remains  of  veg- 
etables are  distributed  throughout  the  whole  se- 
ries, which,  taken  together  are  called  coal  meas- 
ures. 

The  coal  strata  appear  to  have  been  deposit- 
ed in  the  vicinity  of  tracts  of  dry  land,  containing 
D 


38 

rivers,  marshes,  fresh  water  lakes  and  mountains* 

The  marine  beds  which  are  the  foundation  of 
the  coal  strata,  and  also  surround  them,  must 
have  been  raised  from  the  bottom  of  the  ancient 
deep,  before  the  vast  accumulation  of  vegetable 
matter  could  have  been  formed. 

This  change  appears  to  have  been  attended 
with  another  remarkable  effect,  after  this  period 
metallic  veins  have  been  rarely  formed. 

The  vegetable  remains  belong  to  species  found 
in  tropical  climates  principally,  at  the  present 
time,  and  yet,  they  appear  to  have  grown  near 
the  spot  where  they  are  entombed.  This  can  be 
accounted  for  only  by  supposing  that  the  earth, 
generally,  was  of  a  pretty  high  temperature  at  the 
time  of  their  flourishing. 

A  district  with  its  peculiar  series  of  strata  is 
called  a  coal  field. 

Each  district  has  its  peculiar  strata  unconnect- 
ed with  any  other.  Sometimes  the  coal  rests  on 
granite  ;  at  other  times  on  limestone,  and  some- 
times on  greywacke,  or  greywacke  limestone. 
The  coal  in  Rhode  Island  alternates  with  quartz 
rock  of  a  fibrous  structure. 

The  strata  containing  coal  are  nearly  hori- 
zontal. 

In  some  coal  beds  in  Europe,  there  is  a  tran- 
sition from  marine  calcareous  strata  with  animal 
remains,  to  fresh  water  strata  with  terrestrial  veg- 
etables ;  which  implies,  that  the  subjacent  lime- 
stone had  been  gradually  but  unequally  raised 
above  the  sea,  and  during  its  elevation,  some 
parts  remained  immersed  in  the  ocean,  while  oth- 


39 

er  parts  were  covered  with  vegetable  depositions. 

Coal  strata  are  often  arranged  in  basin  shaped 
concavities,  which  appear  to  have  been  lakes  that 
were  gradually  filled  by  carbonaceous  depositions. 

Strata  under  a  bed  of  coal  are  frequently  simi- 
lar to  those  over  it ;  and  the  same  series  are  re- 
peated in  some  mines  several  times. 

A  fault  is  a  break  or  intersection  of  strata  by 
which  they  are  commonly  raised  up,  or  thrown 
down. 

A  Dyke  is  a  wall  of  mineral  matter,  cutting 
through  the  strata  in  a  position  nearly  vertical. 

The  thickness  of  dykes  varies  from  a  few  in- 
ches to  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  or  more.  They 
are  composed  of  indurated  clay  or  basalt. 

Contorted  Strata  are  those  which  are  twisted 
or  bent. 

Coal  strata  frequently  present  remarkable  con- 
tortions, which  are  probably  owing  to  a  lateral 
force  that  has  compressed  them  into  a  zig-zag 
form. 

Coal  strata  near  the  surface,  are  generally  in 
a  soft  decomposed  state,  and  intermixed  with 
earthy  matter  ;  in  this  case,  the  soil  is  generally 
of  a  darker  color. 

In  general,  coal  improves  in  quality  as  it  sinks 
into  the  earth.  It  is  more  highly  carbonized  and 
compact. 

Vertical  Joints  in  coal  are  called  slines ;  the 
oblique  shorter  joints,  cutters. 

Coal  is  divided  into  two  species,  but  of  these 
there  are  various  kinds,  viz.  Brown  coal  and 
Black  coal.  Brown  coal,  called  also  lignite,  is 


40 

principally  found  in  alluvial  or  diluvial  ground, 
it  contains  besides  charcoal  and  sometimes  bitu- 
men, various  vegetable  principles,  and  the  branch- 
es or  trunks  of  trees  partially  decomposed,  which 
mark  its  origin.  Such  is  the  lignite  of  Martha's 
Vineyard. 

Common  coal  is  composed  of  charcoal,  bitu- 
men and  earthy  matter  ;  the  latter  forming  the 
ashes,  when  it  is  burnt ;  the  ashes  vary  in  differ- 
ent kinds,  from  2  to  20  per  cent.  The  propor- 
tion of  bitumen  from  20  to  40  per  cent. 

Anthracite,  is  a  mineral  approaching  to  the  na- 
ture of  Plumbago  ;  it  consists  nearly  of  pure  car- 
bon, hard  and  difficult  to  ignite  ;  and  often  exhib- 
its a  very  high  degree  of  lustre,  sometimes  a  me- 
tallic one,  often  irridescent. 

It  is  commonly  found  in  transition  rocks,  but 
sometimes  in  regular  coal  strata. 

The  anthracite  of  Pennsylvania  is  not  regarded 
by  European  Geologists,  as  the  true  anthracite  * 
but  only  a  variety  of  common  coal  containing  but 
little  bitumen. 

The  Rhode  Island  coal  approaches  nearest  the 
European  Anthracite. 

Anthracite  ingeneral^is  so  completely  mineral- 
ized as  to  present  no  traces  of  vegetable  origin  ; 
but  in  some  bituminous  coal,  as  in  the  Pictou  and 
some  European  coals,  there  may  be  found  regu- 
lar strata  of  vegetables,  converted  into  true  min- 
eral coal,  preserving  when  separated  perfect  im- 
pressions of  leaves  and  other  parts  of  vegetables. 
Hence  it  may  be  fairly  inferred  that  all  coal  is  of 
vegetable  origin. 


41 

In  order  to  account  for  such  a  mass  of  vegeta- 
bles as  must  be  requisite  to  form  coal  beds  ;  it  may 
be  supposed  that  vegetation,  in  the  primitive  ages, 
was  much  more  rapid  under  an  high  degree  of 
temperature,  and  in  an  atmosphere  probably 
much  more  highly  charged  with  carbonic  acid, 
than  it  was  after  the  creation  of  man.  Vegeta- 
tion would  tend  to  absord  the  carbonic  acid,  or 
rather  the  carbon,  setting  free  the  oxygen  and 
purifying  the  air  for  the  respiration  of  animals. 

The  most  common  vegetables  found  in  coal 
fields  are  referred  to  the  Cryptogamous  class  in 
Botany,  Equisetums  (horse  tails)  of  gigantic  size, 
with  jointed  and  striated  stems,  hence  called  cal- 
amites,  and  Lyeopodiae  allied  to  ferns.  From 
the  fact  that  the  plants  are  found  erect  in  many 
coal  formations,  we  may  infer  that  they  grew 
near  the  place  where  their  remains  are  entombed. 

Wood  coal,  or  Lignite,  is  found  in  diluvium,  or 
alluvium,  and  appears  to  have  been  formed  of 
heaps  of  trees  &c.,  buried  by  inundations  under 
beds  of  clay,  sand,  or  gravel.  The  woody  parts 
have  probably  undergone  a  degree  of  vegetable 
fermentation  under  the  pressure  of  the  incum- 
bent earthy  matter,  by  which  they  have  been  car- 
bonized and  consolidated. 

In  common  coal,  the  vegetable  extract  and 
resin  have  been  destroyed  and  the  carbon  and 
bitumen  remain. 

Coal  may  have  been  formed  from  peat,  if  we 
admit  that  northern  latitudes  had  the  temperature 
of  tropical  climates  during  the  geological  epoch, 
when  the  vegetables  flourished  that  are  found  in 

D2 


42 

the  coal  strata ;  the  peat  of  that  period  would 
partake  of  a  different  character  from  recent  peat 
beds,  and  might  be  produced  by  the  rapid  decom- 
position of  large  terrestrial  and  marsh  plants, 
which  have  not  woody  stems  and  therefore  much 
sooner  decomposed. 

Thick  beds  of  peat  might  have  been  formed  in 
the  primitive  ages  in  a  very  short  time  ;  vegeta- 
tion then  flourishing  and  decaying  under  an  high 
degree  of  temperature  and  a  moist  atmosphere, 
charged,  as  we  may  suppose,  with  carbonic  acid. 

The  fossil  vegetable  remains,  found  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world  in  coal  fields,  under  differ- 
ent latitudes  belong,  in  general,  to  the  same  gen- 
era, and  their  species  are  nearly  identical.  Those 
in  America,  Greenland,  Nova  Zembla,  India,  and 
New  Holland,  belong  to  the  same  families  as  those 
in  Europe.  To  account  for  this,  we  must  admit 
that  the  temperature  of  the  globe  was  pretty  uni- 
formly the  same  under  the  different  latitudes,  and 
jhe  temperature  that  of  tropical  climates,  at  the 
epoch  of  the  coal  formation. 

The  regular,  or  great  coal  formation,  seldom 
occurs  at  a  great  elevation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea ;  it  is  found  near  the  foot  of  great  mountain 
chains,  or  in  valleys,  or  in  islands  of  the  sea. 
-  Much  of  the  coal  of  the  Northern  and  Middle 
States,  is  that,  kind  called  anthracite  containing 
little  bitumen,  and  emitting  but  little  flame  and 
smoke  in  burning. 

The  quantity  of  coal  raised  in  England  is  im- 
mense, and  it  is  to  this  substance  and  the  iron 
found  in  the  same  deposit,  that  the  nation 


43 

owes  a  great  part  of  her  commercial  prosperity; 
for  to  the  abundance  and  cheapness  oi'both  these 
articles  in  various  districts,  they  are  indebted  for 
a  large  proportion  of  their  manufactures  ;  the 
same  series  of  beds  not  only  furnishing  fuel  for 
working  the  steam  engines,  but  also  iron  for  their 
construction. 

Here  we  see,  evidently,  design  and  intelligence 
in  the  Great  Author  of  Nature.  The  accumula- 
tion of  vegetable  matter  at  a  remote  epoch  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  for  the  consumption  of  crea- 
tures that  afterwards  exist  on  its  surface,  must 
strike  every  inquiring  mind  with  an  idea  of  Omnis- 
cience and  beneficence  ;  but  when  the  upturned, 
twisted  and  contorted  strata,  so  common  in  coal 
districts,  are  taken  into  consideration,  design  is 
not  so  apparent ;  and  this  might,  therefore,  be 
regarded  as  a  bar  to  the  ingenuity  of  man,  in  ex- 
tracting the  useful  combustible. 

When,  however,  we  examine  more  closely  the 
subject,  we  find  that  the  shattered  and  contorted 
condition  of  the  rocks,  though  it  may  embarrass 
mining  operations  for  a  time,  is  highly  advanta- 
geous. The  faults  so  cross  each  other  that  the 
surface,  if  it  could  be  examined  without  its  cov- 
ering of  vegetation  and  detritus,  would  present 
much  the  appearance,  on  a  great  scale,  as  a  fro- 
zen surface  of  a  great  lake  broken  to  pieces  and 
reunited  by  subsequent  frosts.  Masses  of  frac- 
tured strata  are  thus  often  bounded  by  faults 
which  prevent  the  passage  of  subterranean  waters 
from  one  mass  into  another,  and  the  miners  in 
collieries  situated  in  one  particular  mass,  have 


44 

only  to  contend  with  the  waters  in  it ;  whereas,  if 
the  strata  were  always  horizontal,  unbroken  and 
continuous,  the  abundance  of  water  that  would 
flow  into  the  workings  would  render  them  so  dif- 
ficult and  expensive,  that  the  extraction  of  the 
coal  would  be  abandoned. 

The  vegetable  remains  belonging  to  the  coal 
formation,  generally,  appear  to  be  chiefly  derived 
from  various  grasses  and  reeds,  and  plants  of  the 
cryptogamous  and  succulent  tribes,  many  of  which 
are  not  known  to  grow,  at  present,  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  From  the  latter  of  these  the  coal 
itself  appears  to  have  proceeded.  In  the  moun- 
tain limestone  above  the  coal,  and  in  the  different 
members  of  this  formation,  existing  between  this 
and  the  lias,  vegetable  remains  appear  to  be  of 
rare  occurrence  ;  so  that  particulars  of  such  as 
have  been  discovered  in  these  situations  may  fur- 
nish much  useful  information,  and  especially  with 
respect  to  those  fossils  which  have  been  supposed 
to  have  derived  their  origin  from  wood. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  wood,  or  parts  of  trees 
have  been  found  in  coal  and  in  the  accompanying 
coal  measures  ;  this  requires  further  confirmation  ; 
except  in  the  lignite,  description  has  not,  hitherto, 
been  so  exact  as  to  preclude  doubt  on  the  subject. 
It  is  pretty  certain,  from  recent  and  more  minute 
observations,  that  no  plants  of  ligneous  stems  are 
found  in  the  great  coal  measures.  Those  traces, 
which  have  given  rise  to  the  idea  of  trees,  are,  it 
is  highly  probable,  gigantic  succulent  plants  of 
the  Equisetee  and  Cactus  tribes  ;  and  may  thus 
have  led  to  the  belief  of  trees,  from  the  ligneous 


45 

hardness  which  large  plants  of  this  kind  may  have 
acquired,  and  which,  perhaps,  may  be  traced  in 
their  mineralized  remain. 

The  size  which  these  fossil  plants  have  attain- 
ed compared  with  the  cactuses  in  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  may  lead  to  a  doubt  as  to  the 
opinion  of  their  agreement  with  recent  cactuses. 
But  to  be  enabled  to  form  a  correct  judgment  on 
this  point,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  state  iu 
which  these  plants  exist  where  the  soil  and  cli- 
mate are  such  as  to  allow  them  to  develope  them- 
selves in  their  native  luxuriance.  Humbolt's  re- 
searches in  the  equinoctial  region  of  South  Amer- 
ica, supply  us  with  the  most  appropriate  antl  sat- 
isfactory information.  He  says :  "  The  hill  of 
calcareous  breccia,  which  we  have  regarded  as 
an  island  in  the  ancient  gulph,  is  covered  with  a 
thick  forest  of  columnar  cactus  and  opuntia,  some 
thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  covered  with  lichens,  and 
divided  into  several  branches  in  the  form  of  can- 
delabras,  wearing  a  singular  appearance.  Near 
Maniquarez,  at  Punta  Araya,  we  measured  a  cac- 
tus, the  trunk  of  which  was  four  feet  nine  inches 
in  circumference.  The  European,  acquainted 
only  with  the  opuntia,  in  our  hot  houses,  is  sur- 
prised to  see  the  wood  of  the  plant  become  so 
hard  by  age,  and  it  resists  for  centuries,  both  air 
and  water,  so  that  the  Indians  of  Cumana  employ 
it  in  preference  for  hords  and  doorposts.  Cuma- 
na, Caro,  the  island  of  Margaretta,  and  Curaccao 
are  the  places  in  South  America  that  abound 
most  in  the  plants  of  the  nopals.  There  only,  a 
botanist  can  compose  a  monography  of  the  gen- 


46 

us  cactus,  the  species  of  which  vary,  not  on- 
ly in  their  flowers,  and  fruits,  but  in  the  form 
of  their  articulated  stems,  the  number  of  costce 
and  the  disposition  of  the  thorns  ;  the  division  of 
property  are  marked  by  hedges  formed  of  the 
agave  and  cactus.  At  San  Fernando,  South 
America,  the  soil  abounds  in  aquatic  plants  with 
sanitate  leaves,  some  of  these  aquatic  plants  are 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  high.  In  Europe,  their 
assemblage  would  be  considered  a  little  wood." 
He  also  mentions  a  kind  of  bamboo,  which  the  In- 
dians cattJagua,  which  is  found  near  San  Fernando, 
more  than  forty  feet  in  height.  "  These,  he  ob- 
serves, cannot  but  remind  the  admirer  of  fossils 
of  the  vast  fossil  bamboos  which  are  found  in  the 
sandstone,  accompanying  coal.  "  Speaking  of  a 
rock  of  considerable  height  and  magnitude,  he 
observes :  "  Euphorbium,  Cacalia,  Klinia  and 
Cactus,  which  are  become  'wild  in  the  Canary  Is- 
lands, as  well  as  in  the  South  of  Europe  and  the 
whole  continent  of  Africa,  are  the  only  plants 
we  see  on  this  arid  rock  :  being  plants  which 
draw  their  nourishment  rather  from  the  air,  than 
from  the  soil  in  which  they  grow."  He  also  re- 
marks, "It  is  not,  in  general,  by  mosses  and  lich- 
ens that  vegetation  in  the  countries  near  the  trop- 
ics begins.  In  the  Canary  Islands,  as  well  as  in 
Guinea,  and  in  the  rocky  coasts  of  Peru,  the 
first  vegetables  that  prepare  the  mould  for  others, 
are  the  succulent  plants. " 

These  interesting  observations  of  Baron  Hum- 
bolt,  taken  into  consideration  with  the  appearan- 
ces exhibited  by  the  fossils  accompanying  coal, 


47 


tend  to  the  further  evidence  of  the  formation  of 
that  substance.  From  its  chemical  characters, 
its  bearing  the  impressions  of  vegetables,  and  be- 
ing surrounded  with  vegetable  remains  in  the 
roofs  and  floors  of  the  mines  and  the  accompa- 
nying coal  measures,  its  vegetable  origin  may  be 
fairly  infered.  The  examination  of  the  various 
fossil  vegetables  which  accompany  it  has  deter^ 
mined  that  they  chiefly  belong  to  the  grasses, 
reeds,  the  cryptogamous  and  succulent  plants  ; 
and  point  out  the  kind  of  vegetables  which  most 
abounded,  and,  perhaps  to  the  exclusion  of  trees 
and  arborescent  plants,  at  that  period,  when  the 
land  first  rose  from  the  dominion  of  the  waters. 
It  is  true,  that  an  exact  agreement  between  the 
forms  and  markings  of  these  fossil  remains  and 
of  those  of  the  succulent  plants  which  are  offer- 
ed to  our  observation  iir  the  present  day,  is  not 
often  the  same  ;  but  it  should  be  considered  that 
analogy  will  not  authorise  the  expectation  of  an 
exact  agreement, ,  since  it  is  rarely  to  be  found 
between  the  fossil  remains,  and  the  vegetables 
now  existing,  owing  to  the  extinction  of  whole 
tribes  from  which  those  fossil  remains  have  pro- 
ceeded, Besides,  considerable  differences  must 
result  from  the  greater  size  observable  in  the  fos- 
sil vegetables,  especially  in  those  of  the  succulent 
tribes,  than  in  those  of  modern  creation.  Nor 
should  the  difference  be  unregarded  which  de^ 
pends  on  situation  and  climate ;  the  succulent 
plants  of  Italy  differ  materially  in  size  from  those 
of  South  America  and  of  other  regions  in  the 
warmer  climates. 


48 

From  the  discoveries  and  observations  made* 
we  may  safely  infer,  that,  at  some  very  remote  pe^ 
riod  in  the  existence  of  our  planet,  it  must  have 
abounded  with  plants  of  the  succulent  kinds,  and* 
as  it  appears  from  their  remains,  in  a  great  vari- 
ety of  forms  and  luxuriance  of  size.  These,  from 
what  is  discoverable  of  their  structure,  armed 
with  Setae  and  spines,  were  not  formed  for  the 
food  of  animals  ;  nor  from  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
stances of  which  they  were  composed,  were  they 
fitted  to  be  applied  to  the  various  purposes  for 
which  wood,  the  product  of  the  earth  at  a  subse- 
quent period,  has  been  found  to  be  so  excellently 
adapted  by  man.  Their  remains,  it  must  also 
be  remarked,  are  now  found  in  conjunction  with 
that  substance  which  nature  has,  in  all  probabili- 
ty, formed  from  them,  and  which  by  the  peculiar 
economical  modification  of  its  combustibility,  is 
rendered  an  invaluable  article  of  fuel.  If  this  be 
admitted  to  be  the  origin  of  coal,  a  satisfactory 
cause  will  appear  for  the  vast  abundance  of  vege- 
table matter  with  which  the  earth  must  have  been 
stored  in  its  early  ages  ;  this  vast  and  in  any  oth- 
er view,  useless  creation,  will  thus  be  ascertained 
to  have  proceeded  from  a  beneficent  arrangement 
by  Providence  for  man,  the  being  of  a  creation 
of  a  later  period. 

According  to  M.  Al.  Brongniart,  no  kind  of 
marine  plants  occur  in  the  coal  measures ;  they 
are  all  of  land  origin.  He  enumerates  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Equisetum,  or  horsetails ;  Calamites,  or  reeds  ; 
12  species.  FERNS  ;  21  kinds  of  Sphoenopteris ; 


49 

2  of  Cyclopteris  ;  1 1  of  Nevropteris ;  a  Glossop- 
teris  ;  46  speeies  of  Ptecopteris ;  a  Lonchopteris  ; 
4  kinds  of  Odontopteris  ;  41  of  Sigillaria.  7  spe- 
cies of  marsilleaceae  or  the  pepperwort  tribe.  10 
species  of  the  Lycopodiacese,  or  the  club  moss. 
2  of  Selagmites.  34  of  Lepidodendron  ;  5  of 
Lepidophyllum  ;  4  of  Lepidostrobus  ;  5  of  Cardi- 
ocarpori ;  8  of  Stigmaria  ;  3  Palms  ;  a  Canna  ; 
14  species  of  four  monocotyledons, 

On  the  above  enumeration,  M.  Adolphe  Brong- 
niart  remarks  :  "from  which  it  results,  that  we 
have  not  found  in  the  coal  formation  any  plants 
of  the  classes  of  the  agames,  the  cellular  crypto- 
garnes,  phanerogames  gymnospermes,  nor  phane- 
rogames dicotyledons;  while  of  about 200 known 
species,  there  are  more  than  180  belonging  to  the 
vascular  cryptogames,  and  20  to  the  phaneroga- 
mes monocotyledons." 

"We  only  find  these  terrestrial  or  lacustrine 
vegetables.  No  shell,  no  fish,  of  an  origin  purely 
marine,  is  cited  in  the  coal  or  in  the  coal  rocks 
properly  so  called." 

Marine  plants  are  not  found  in  the  coal  meas- 
ures but  in  the  limestone  above  them  ;  hence  it  is 
^evident  that  the  Magnesian  limestone  was  formed 

r-   at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  deposited  after  the 

fr   great  coal  formation. 

|  In  the  opinion  of  M.  Adolphe  Brongniart,  the 
antiquity  of  the  formations  in  which  the  vegeta- 
bles of  the  first  period  of  creation,  are  found, prove, 
hat  we  might  admit  a  priori,  that  life  began  on 
the  earth  by  the  vegetable  kingdom,  That  veg- 
etation preceded  all  animal  life,  precisely  as  Mo- 
ses has  stated.  E 


Secondary  Formations. 

Secondary  rock  formations  comprise  all  the 
regular  strata  that  cover  the  transition  rocks,  and 
coal  measures,  and  in  Europe  terminate  with 
chalk.  They  are  composed  of  vast  depositions 
of  sandstone  and  conglomerate  beds,  separated 
by  beds  of  clay  and  sand. 

The  secondary  limestones  are  less  crystalline 
and  more  soft  and  earthy  than  transition  and 
mountain  limestone,  but  some  yield  a  beautiful 
marble  used  in  the  arts.  It  abounds  in  a  great 
variety  of  organic  remains,  consisting  of  corals 
and  many  species  of  Zoophytes,  and  other  radiat- 
ed animals  ;  some  species  of  Crustacea,  a  few  re-  . 
mains  offish  and  a  great  variety  of  marine  shells. 
It  forms  a  considerable  stratum  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  and  abounds,  in  many  places,  in 
valuable  ores  of  lead.  In  some  parts  it  is  estima- 
ted to  be  nine  hundred  feet  in  thickness. 

The  secondary  strata  abound  almost  through- 
out, especially  in  the  lower  secondary,  with  re- 
mains of  marine  animals. 


51 

The  remains  of  fresh  water  animals,  in  some  of 
the  secondary  strata,  and  parts  of  terrestrial  vege- 
tables also  occur  ;  proving  the  existence  of  tracts 
of  dry  land  at  the  time  the  strata  were  deposited. 

The  secondary  strata,  in  some  one,  or  other  of 
their  varieties,  cover  a  large  portion  of  the  habit- 
able globe. 

Some  beds  of  imperfect  coal  and  lignite  occur 
in  the  secondary  strata. 

Few  metallic  veins,  or  beds,  except  iron  and 
lead,  occur  in  the  secondary  formation;  neither 
are  there  any  rare  species  of  crystallized  minerals. 

In  this  formation  occur  rock  salt  and  gypsum, 
in  a  rock  consisting  of  red,  or  bluish  grey  sand, 
or  clay  marie,  or  both.  Hence  called  Saliferoits 
rock. 

The  loiver  secondary  or  third  series,  include  those 
rock  strata  which  in  addition  to  the  relics  of  the 
transition  class,  contain  univalve  marine  shells, 
not  chambered,  with  stiped  and  mostly  culmiferous 
monocotyledonous  vegetables, 

Upper  secondary,  or  fourth  series,  includes  those 
strata  which,  in  addition  to  the  relics  of  the  third 
series  contain  oviparous  vertebrated  animals'. 

After  the  deposition  of  the  coal  strata,  another 
important  change  appears  to  have  taken  place  in 
the  condition'of  our  planet.  The  upper  secon- 
dary strata  contain  principally  the  remains  of  ma- 
rine animals  ;  here  the  bones  and  entire  skeletons 
of  enormous  reptiles  are  first  discovered  ;  but  no 
remains  of  mammiferous  land  quadrupeds,  except 
in  one  or  two  instances,  have  been  found. 

New  red  sandstone,  so  called  to  distinguish  it 


52 

from  another  sandstone  found  in  the  transition 
rock. 

This  is  a  very  extensive  and  complex  formation. 

Its  prevailing  mineral  character  is  siliceous.  It 
is  of  different  colors,  most  commonly  verging  to 
a  red,  which  is  evidently  a  protoxide  of  iron  con- 
verted into  the  peroxide  by  heat. 

It  may  be  divided  into  three  series,  or  the  up- 
per the  middle  and  lower  beds.  These  are  sub- 
divided into  varieties  and  all  included  in  the  great 
red  sandstone  formation,  viz.  Conglomerates,  red 
and  grey.  Trap  conglomerates,  Sandstone  red 
and  grey.  Micaceous  schist.  Variegated  sand- 
stone. Shale,  Bituminous  shale,  Bituminous 
marlite,  Bituminous  limestone,  Fetid  limestone, 
Argillaceous  carbonate  of  lime,  or  Lias. 

Fragments  of  the  older  rocks  occur  in  the  dif- 
ferent beds  of  sandstone,  and  sometimes  the  beds 
are  formed  almost  entirely  of  these  fragments.  It 
appears  that  the  disintegrating  causes  which 
broke  down  part  of  the  ancient  rocks,  acted  at 
successive  intervals  of  short  duration  ;  succeeded 
by  long  periods  of  repose  in  which  the  calcareous 
deposites  were  made. 

In  magnesian  limestone,  in  this  divisirn,  occur 
the  fossil  encrinites,  ammonites,  terrcbratulites 
and  muscles. 

The  sandstone  appears  principally  to  be  formed 
by  the  disintegration  of  the  unconformable  rocks 
in  the  lower  formations.  This  group  is  estimated 
at  not  less  than  2100  feet  in  thickness. 

Tracks,  or  impressions  of  the  feet  of  an  animal 
resembling  a  turkey  have  been  found  in  the  sand- 


53 

stone  near  Montague,  in  Massachusetts ;  but  to 
what  animal  it  did  properly  belong  is  not  accurate- 
ly determined,  They  are  also  found  in  the  same 
rock  in  other  parts  of  the  Connecticut  valley.* 

Vegetable  remains  are  also  found  in  this  for- 
mation. Such  as  the  Calamites,  Lyeopodite,  the 
Voltzia  and  many  of  the  Genus  Ficoides.  Ichthy- 
olites  are  found  in  Bituminous  marlite,  also  the 
family  of  Molusceco,  Zoophytes  and  Radiatae. 

The  remains  of  fishes  occasionally  occur  in  all 
the  secondary  strata.  Fossil  fish  have  been  less 
accurately  ascertained,  as  to  the  genera  to  which 
they  belong,  than  the  other  kinds  of  animal  re- 
mains, because  the  science  of  fishes  is  not  so  far 
advanced  as  other  branches  of  Zoology. 

Ichthyolites,  or  impression  of  fish,  are  found  in 
abundance  in  the  New  Red  Sandstone  group  in 
Sunderland,  Mass,  and  in  Middletown,  Conn. 
These  occur  in  Bituminous  Shale  and  Bitumin- 
ous Marlite  ;  a  thin  layer  of  Carbonaceous  matter 
marks  out  the  spot  where  the  fish  lay ;  except  the 

•The  following  interesting  notice  is  from  a  Northampton  paper. 

•  Bird  Tracks  in  Stone. — Prof.  Hitchcock  of  Amherst,  passing 
over  our  side  walks,  discovered  distinct  prints  of  the  feet  of  a  very 
large  bird  ;  three  tracks  succeeding  each  other,  in  two  places  on 
the  paving  stones.  One  set  of  tracks  is  on  the  pavement  in  front 
of  the  Court  House  steps,  and  the  other  on  a  large  flat  stone  in 
front  of  the  east  door  of  the  old  Meeting  House.  These  stones 
were  brought  from  the  banks  of  the  river  at  South  Hadley  Falls 
and  are  of  the  sandstone  formation. 

The  tracks  are  about  one  foot  and  nine  inches  apart,  and  must 
have  been  imprinted  when  the  stones  were  in  a  soft  state,  by  some 
larger  bird  than  is  now  known  to  inhabit  these  regions,  excepting 
the  wild  Turkey.  The  Professor  mentioned  having  seen  ten  of 
these  tracks  in  succession  in  a  stone  at  Gill,  we  believe,  and  the 
Franklin  Mercury,  not  long  since,  gave  an  account  of  similar  im- 
pressions. 

E2 


54 

head,  whose  outlines  are  rendered  visible  only  by 
irregular  ridges  and  furrows.  Sometimes  the  im- 
pression is  perfect,  but  most  commonly  the  out- 
lines are  much  deranged,  so  that  it  becomes  a 
difficult  task  to  ascertain  the  species. 

In  the  magnesian  limestone  are  found  the  fossil 
Productus  and  Spirifcr, 

Some  of  the  magnesian  limestone  is  fetid  when 
rubbed. 

Magnesian  limestone  affords  the  most  durable 
building  stone  that  is  found  in  the  upper  secon- 
dary series. 

Gypsum  and  Rock  salt  occur  in  the  new  red 
sandstone,  But  they  are  not  confined  to  this  for- 
mation. Salt  springs  rise  in  the  coal  strata,  and 
gypsum  and  rock  salt,  are  found  in  the  upper 
Secondary  and  Tertiary  beds  ;  but  the  reposito- 
ries of  these  minerals  are  more  characteristic  of 
the  new  red  sandstone. 

Gypsum,  both  fibrous  and  massive,  occurs  in 
the  new  red  marl,  and  sandstone  ;  the  fibrous  al- 
ternates in  seams  the  massive  is  granular  and  oc- 
curs in  regular  beds  and  blocks,  in  the  red  marl. 

Gypsum  is  associated  with  rock  salt. 

Anhydrous  Gypsum  is  entirely  free  from  water, 
and  is  much  harder  and  heavier  than  common 
gypsum.  Rock  salt  is  sometimes  situated  near 
the  feet  of  high  mountains  and  appears  to  have 
been  deposited  originally  in  salt  water  lakes. 
It  is  sometimes  surrounded  by  red  sand  stone. 
Hungary  and  Poland  afford  the  most  extensive 
repositories  of  rock  salt  in  Europe. 

In  Caramania  in  Asia,  rock  salt  is  said  to  be 


55 

so  abundant  and  the  atmosphere  so  dry,  that 
houses  have  been  built  of  it. 

In  Peru,  rock  salt  is  said  to  occur  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  9000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Salt 
springs  and  licks  abound  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Near  some  of  these  places  at  a 
little  depth  below  the  surface  the  bones  of  the 
great  Mastodon  are  frequently  found. 

Rock  salt  has  not  been  found  in  the  United 
States. 

The  new  red  sandstone  appears  to  be  produced 
principally  by  the  agency  of  water,  which  first 
wore  away  the  rocks,  and  then  transported  their 
fragments  and  deposited  them  where  we  now  find 
them.  They  were  probably  consolidated  by  the 
agencies  of  water,  air  and  heat.  It  was  deposited 
beneath  the  ocean  and  afterwards  elevated.  The 
fossil  vegetables  found  in  it  were  evidently  marine, 
or  grew  in  salt  water ;  and  the  animals  are,  as  far 
as  our  knowledge  extends,  of  marine  origin.  The 
temperature  at  the  time  of  their  formation  was 
evidently,  much  higher  than  at  present ;  as  the 
fossil  remains  found  in  the  sandstone,  are  allied 
to  those  genera  now  peculiar  to  the  torrid  zone. 

The  fact  appears  pretty  well  established,  that 
these  have  been  several  successive  creations  and 
extinctions  of  animals  and  plants  on  our  globe, 
previously  to  the  production  of  the  present  organ- 
ized beings. 

According  to  Brongniart,  there  have  been  four 
periods  of  vegetation  since  the  creation,  each  dif- 
fering from  the  other  by  a  marked  distinction  in 


56 

the  species  and  even  genera  of  plants,  and  in  the 
numerical  proportion  of  the  different  kinds. 

During  the  first  period,  the  strata,  from  the 
lowest  fossiliferous  rocks  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
new  red  sand  stone,  were  deposited.  The  second 
period  includes  the  time  in  which  the  new  red 
sandstone  series  were  forming.  The  third  period, 
the  vegetables  lived  which  are  found  between  the 
new  red  sandstone  and  the  chalk,  including  the 
latter.  The  fourth  period  commenced  after  the 
deposition  of  the  chalk,  and  reaches  to  the  high- 
est of  the  tertiary  deposites. 

During  each  successive  period,  the  vegetation 
became  more  perfect.  Cryptogamous  plants  pre- 
dominated during  the  first  period,  while  dicotyle- 
donous and  monocotyledonous  during  the  last 
period.  The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  animals. 
Those  found  in  the  lower  rocks  are  extremely 
simple  in  their  organization,  and  vertebral  animals, 
except  a  few  fishes,  do  not  appear  lower  down 
than  the  new  red  sand  stone,  while  land  animals 
begin  to  appear  higher  in  the  series. 


Of  the  Lias  Formation. 

The  term  Lias  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption 
of  the  word  Layers  it  being  in  thin  strata  or  lay- 
ers ;  and  is  argillaceous  limestone  of  a  dark  grey 
color  ;  and  associated  with  beds  of  clay.  It  is 
best  characterised  of  all  the  secondary  formation, 
both  from  its  mineral  character  and  the  fossil  re- 
mains found  in  it. 

The  marly  stratum  may  be  regarded  as  the  first 
approach  to  a  formation  resembling  lias  in  its 
characters.  This  occupies  the  upper  part  of  the 
bed,  and  the  lias  limestone  the  lower.  The  latter 
has  frequently  a  yellowish  white  color,  or  smoke 
grey. 

If  iron  enter  largely  into  the  composition,  it 
forms  when  burnt,  an  excellent  water  cement. 

The  finer  kinds  of  lias  are  used  for  Lithography  ; 
the  best  is  found  on  tho  Rhine.  It  is,  when  pol- 
ished, a  beautiful  stone,  moderately  hard  and 
compact,  and  is  highly  absorbable  of  water  and 
oil. 

The  beds  of  lias,  clay  and  limestene  are  partic- 
ularly distinguished  by  the  number  and  variety  of 


58 

organic  remains  which*  they  contain.  Such  as 
ammonites,  nautulites,  belemnites,  and  other  spe- 
cies of  chambered  shells. 

Univalved  unehambered  shells  are  not  nume- 
rous. 

A  great  variety  of  bivalve  shells  occur. 

The  gryphea  incurva,  and  Pentacrinites  abound 
in  the  lias. 

The  most  remarkable  organic  remains,  are  cer- 
tain species  of  fish,  and  vertebrated  animals  al- 
lied to  the  lizard  tribe. 

The  Ichthyosaurus,  or  fish  lizard,  had  a  head 
resembling  a  dolphin,  and  numerous  conical  teeth. 
The  eyes  were  of  enormous  magnitude,  measur- 
ing ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  they  have  been 
found  from  five  to  twenty  feet  in  length.  They 
naturally  breathed  air,  for  which  purpose  they 
were  oblidged  to  swim  on  the  surface  of  the  wa- 
ter. Several  species  have  been  discovered. 

The  Plesiosaurus  resembled  the  former  in  many 
particulars,  in  its  osteology ;  its  vertebrae  ap- 
proach those  of  the  crocodile.  Its  neck  was  lon- 
ger than  its  body.  The  dimensions  were  as 
follows : 

Cervical  vertebras,  35 

With  the  dorsal  ribs,  6 

Back  and  loins,  21 

Tail,  26 

Sacral,  2 

Total,  90 

It  is  considered  as  a  marine  animal  intermedi- 
ate in  its  structure  between  the  crocodile  and 
Ichthyosaurus. 


59 

The  Sea-serpent,  which  has  frequently  visited 
the  waters  of  New  England,  is  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  genus  Plesiosaurus.  Its  existence  has  been 
so  often  attested  by  thousands  of  competent  wit- 
nesses, that  its  identity  is  no  longer  problematical. 

The  organic  remains  in  lias  are  not  always  ma- 
rine. It  contains  the  bones  of  the  turtle  and 
crocodile ;  and  also  terrestrial  plants.  Proving 
that  dry  land  must  have  existed  in  the  vicinity 
previously  to  the  deposition. 

Oolite,  is  so  named  from  its  being  composed  of 
small  grains  of  the  size  of  mustard  seed,  or  the 
roe  of  fish  ;  of  a  vellowish  color  alternating  with 

•/  O 

beds  of  clay,  marl,  sand  and  sandstone.  This 
formation  in  England  has  an  aggregate  depth  of 
1200  feet.  When  the  globules  attain  the  size  of 
a  pea,  the  aggregate  is  called  Pea  stone,  or  pisi- 
form Oolite.  Some  beds  of  Oolite  are  used  in  Ar- 
chitecture but  it, is  liable  to  disintegration. 

Fossil  genera  of  animals  are  found  in  the  Oolite 
which  differ  remarkably  from  those  found  in  the 
lower  strata,  and  indicate  a  considerable  change 
in  the  condition  of  the  globe,  or  in  those  parts  of 
it  where  the  strata  are  deposited. 

Most  of  the  genera  of  fossils  found  in  the  lower 
strata  belong  to  the  acephalous  moluscce  or  such 
as  had  neither  heads,  nor  eyes,  and  inhabited  bi- 
valve shells. 

In  the  Oolite  the  genera  and  species  ofuni- 
valve  unchambered  shells  are  more  numerous, 
and  the  individual  shells  of  several  species  abound 
in  some  of  the  strata. 

Now,  as  these  animals  had  heads  and  eyes  and 


60 

moved  on  their  bellies  like  the  land  snails,  we 
may  infer  that  they  did  not  live  in  deep  seas, 
where  the  sense  of  vision  could  not  be  available, 
they  lived  and  moved  in  comparatively  shallow 
water  near  the  shore. 

The  vertebrated  animals  whose  remains  aro 
found  in  Oolite,  are  fishes  and  reptiles  of  the 
same  genera  as  those  discovered  in  the  Lias  ;  the 
reptiles  undoubtedly  belong  to  the  crocodile  ge- 
nus, and  had  feet  like  the  living  species  of  croco- 
dile, hence  it  appears  there  were  dry  land  and 
rivers  in  the  vicinity. 

Madrepores,  and  Millepores,  together  with  fos- 
sil sponges  and  alcyonia,  also  occur  in  this  for- 
mation. 

More  than  twenty  species  of  top  shaped  spiral 
shells  and  several  species  of  echinites  are  found 
in  the  Oolite. 

The  Oolite  is  not  known  to  exist  in  this  country, 
except  in  one  or  two  instances,  but  in  England,  it 
is  a  very  extensive  formation,  and  affords  abun- 
dant materials  for  building.     The  Island  of  Port- 
land near  the  Isle  of  Wight  abounds  in  this  stone, 
hence  called  Portland  stone.     Westminster  A  bbey, 
St  Paul's   Cathedral,    Somerset  House    and    St 
James  Palace  are  constructed  of  this  stone.     In 
the  Portland  quarry  are  found  petrified  trees  nearly 
resembling  the  Palm,  which  is  a  tropical  produc- 
tion.    This  affords,  among  many  others,  a  proof 
that  England  must  have  once  been  under  water, 
and  the  appearance  is  such  as  to  induce  the  be- 
lief that  the  surface  undulated,  or  must  have  gone 
up  and  down  several  times. 


61 

Many  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  afford 
proof  of  the  rising  and  falling  of  land ;  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  are  Pozzuoli  formerly  called 
Putioli.  These  are  remains  of  the  temple  of  Ju- 
piter Serapis,  and  are  known  to  have  once  been 
under  water  from  the  perforations  made  in  them 
by  shell  fish.  These  pillars  must  have  fallen  and 
risen  again.  In  1822,  there -were  tremendous 
earthquakes  in  Lima,  in  consequence  of  which, 
the  land  to  the  extent  of  one  hundred  miles  along 
the  coast  of  Chili,  rose  from  five  to  seven  feet. 
On  the  coast  of  Sweden,  an  ancient  Sea  level  has 
been  discovered  between  two  and  three  hundred 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water  ;  Greenland 
is  known  to  be  sinking  ;  yet  such  movements  are 
very  gradual,  except  occasioned  by  earthquakes. 

The  Oolite  is  included  in  three  divisions  viz. 
the  upper  the  middle  and  the  loiver. 

The  loweT  division  of  the  Oolite,  comprises, 
1.  An  imperfect,  dark  brown  limestone,intermixed 
with  sand  and  the  oxide  of  iron.  2.  Beds  of  clay 
and  fuller's  earth.  3.  The  great  Oolite,  of  consid- 
erable thickness,  composed  of  minute  globules 
and  broken  shells,  united  by  yellowish  earthy  cal- 
careous cement.  4.  Forest  marble,  and  a  sandy 
calcareous  stone  dividing  into  shale  and  carbona- 
ceous matter. 

The  univalve  shells  are  the  most  numerous  in 
the  thin  beds,  and  the  bivalve  in  the  thicker  beds. 
5.  A  brown  stone  called  cornbrash,  in  detached 
masses,  cemented  by  clay,  abounding  in  shells 
and  other  fossils. 

The  Middle  division  of  Oolite,  consists  1.  of 
F 


62 

siliceous  and  calcareous  sand  stone.  2.  Coralline 
limestone,  containing  numerous  madrepores,  in 
some  parts  called  coral  ragg.  3.  Oolite  resemb- 
ling the  thin  species  in  the  lower  division. 

The  beds  of  the  middle  Oolite  pass  into  each 
other,  and  may  be  regarded  as  one  formation. 
Bones  of  the  lizard  shaped  animals  have  been 
found  in  this  division. 

The  upper  division  of  Oolite  comprises  1.  Port-* 
land  Stone,  which  is  a  calcareo  siliceous  free  stone, 
with  beds  and  nodules  of  flint.  It  is  not  exten- 
sive. It  is  succeeded  by  beds  of  limestone. 

In  some  of  the  Oolite  are  beds  of  slate  contain- 
ing the  impressions  of  the  outer  cases,  or  elytra 
of  winged  insects,  and  bones  of  a  small  animal  of 
the  opossum  genus  ;  and  also  of  the  megalosau- 
rus,  or  gigantic  lizard.  Calculating  from  the  size 
of  the  bones  the  animal  was  40  feet  long  and  i2 
feet  high.  Also  the  legs  and  thigh  bones  of  birds, 
teeth,  palates  and  vertebrae  of  fishes,  with  crabs, 
and  lobsters. 

The  occurrence  of  wood  and  beds  of  lignite  in 
the  Oolite,  leads  to  the  inference  that  dry  land 
existed  in  the  vicinity,  at  the  period  when  the 
Oolite  beds  were  formed. 

Chalk.  In  England,  the  geological  position  of 
chalk  is  over  the  Oolite  formation,  though  the 
arrangement  varies  in  different  places.  Chalk  if 
found  at  all,  is  in  a  very  limited  quantity  in  the 
United  States. 

The  position  is  as  follows  :  Upper,  or  Portland 
Oolite,  Limestone,  conglomerates,  Sandstone  and 
Clay,  called  Wealden  beds,  Lower  green  sand, 
Blue  clay,  called  gait,  upper  green  sand,  chalk. 


63 

Chalk  is  found  of  different  colors,  it  is  gene- 
rally white  or  yellowish  white ;  occurs  massive  ; 
fracture  earthy  ;  meagre  to  the  touch ;  dull ; 
opaque ;  soft ;  soils  the  fingers ;  adheres  to  the 
tongue  ;  gives  a  white  streak.  Effervesces  with 
acids,  burns  to  quicklime. 

Composition.  Clay,  silex  and  carbonate  of  lime. 
The  greatest  proportion  is  carbonate  of  lime. 

It  is  the  highest  stratum  of  the  secondary  for- 
mation. 

When  compact,  it  is  used  as  a  building  stone. 

The  upper  part  of  the  chalk  throughout  Eng- 
land is  characterized  by  the  presence  of  nume- 
rous  flint  stones,  more  or  less  arranged  in  parallel 
lines  ;  seams  of  this  substance  not  only  occur  in 
a  line  with  the  flints,  but  also  traverse  the  beds 
diagonally. 

When  chalk  is  freed  from  silex,  it  contains, 
according  to  M.  Berthier,  in  100  parts,  98  lime, 
1  magnesia  and  a  little  iron,  1  alumine. 

x-.    >  i.  ..    i  .  <          r  *!,,.    17...     i'    *         »-  - 11-     i         • 

m  me  lower  parts  Oi  die;  j^ngusn  cuaiK  aepos- 
ites,  the  flints  disappear  becoming  gradually  more 
rare  in  the  passage  from  the  upper  to  the  lower 
parts. 

From  this  circumstance,  the  chalk  has  been 
divided  into  two  divisions,  viz.  The  upper,  or 
chalk  ivith  flints,  and  lower,  or  chalk  without  flints. 

This  division,  however,  does  not  always  hold, 
for  in  some  parts  of  France,  the  lower  chalk  con- 
tains an  abundance  of  flint  and  chert  nodules, 
where  it  passes  into  the  upper  green  sand.  There 
can  be  but  little  dependence  placed  on  minute 
divisions  of  rocks,  even  within  the  distance  of  a 
few  miles. 


64 

In  some  parts  of  England,  the  chalk  beds  are 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  small  and  ir- 
regularly rounded  grains  of  quartz,  probably  of 
mechanical  origin,  occasionally  disseminated 
through  the  mass  in  great  abundance.  These 
beds  are  also  remarkable  for  a  great  variety  of 
organic  remains.  They  become  suddenly  replaced 
by  others,  where  the  quartz  entirely  disappears. 

Green  sand  which  appears  to  graduate  into  the 
chalk,  or  cretaceous  group  which  is  charged  with 
green  particles,  is  composed  of  Silex,  0.  50,  pro- 
toxide of  iron  0.  21,  alumine  0.  07,  potash  0.  10. 

The  greenish  or  reddish  nodules  disseminated 
through  the  same  rock  at  Havre,  contained  : — 
phorphate  of  lime  0.  57,  carbonate  of  lime  0.  07, 
carbonate  of  magnesia  0.  02,  Silicate  of  iron  and 
alumine  0.  25,  water  and  bituminous  matter  0.  07, 
Here  we  readily  perceive  a  different  composition 
of  the  nodules  and  grains.  Respecting  the  for- 
mer M.  Al.  Brongniart  observes,  that  the  phos- 
phate of  lime  sometimes  so  abounds  as  nearly  to 
constitute  the  whole  substance. 

The  gait,  is  an  argillaceous  depositeof  a  bluish 
grey  color,  frequently  composed  of  clay  in  the 
upper,  and  marls  in  the  lower  part,  containing 
disseminated  species  of  mica ;  it  effervesces 
strongly  with  acids. 

The  lower  green  sand  is  formed  of  sand  and 
sandstones  of  various  degrees  of  induration,  prin- 
cipally of  iron  grey  and  green  colors.  The  for- 
mer constituting  the  upper  part  and  the  latter  the 
lower  portions ;  which  are  frequently  argill< 
arenaceous,  particularly  at  bottom. 


65 

The  whole  of  the  chalk  series,  taken  as  a  mass, 
may,  in  England  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
France  and  Germany,  be  considered  as  cretaceous 
in  its  upper  part,  and  arenaceous  and  argillaceous 
in  its  lower  part. 

The  greatest  thickness  of  the  chalk  strata  in 
England  may  be  estimated  at  from  six  to  eight 
hundred  Jeet. 

Humbolt  observes,  after  noticing  the  great  in- 
termixture of  the  sandy  calcareous  and  argilla- 
ceous beds,  in  the  formation  below  chalk,  that  na- 
ture seems  to  have  relented  in  her  tendency  to  form 
complex  mixtures  when  chalk  was  deposited. 

Chalk  which  contains  a  considerable  portion  of 
magnesia,  may  generally  be  known  by  an  appear- 
ance of  dendritical  spotted  delineations  on  the 
surface  of  the  natural  partings,  and  by  minute 
black  spots,  like  grains  of  gunpowder,  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  chalk. 

The  organic  remains  in  the  chalk  formation 
are  exclusively  marine.  These  are  echinites, 
particularly  the  helmet  shaped  species,  called 
ananchytes,  and  the  heart  shaped  species  called 
spatangus,  cor  anguinum.  The  chambered  shells 
called  Scaphites,  Harnites,  Turrilites  and  Bacul- 
ites  are  regarded  as  peculiar  to  the  chalk  forma 
tion  ;  it  also  contains  Ammonites,  Belemnites 
and  Nautilites. 

Numerous  organic  remains  of  Zoophytes  in  the 

state  of  flint,  particularly  of  Sponges  and  Alcyo- 

nia,  and  various  species  of  bivalve  shells,  occur  in 

chalk,  but  comparatively  few  spiral  univalve  shells. 

It  is  probable  that  the  deep  ocean  in  which 

F2 


66 

chalk  was  deposited  was  not  suited  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  such  shells,  for  the  animals  had  heads 
and  eyes  and  required  shallow  water  to  see  their 
food.  Teeth,  palates  and  scales  of  fishes  occur 
in  chalk. 

The  vegetable  remains  in  chalk,  are  few,  and 
those  appear  to  belong  to  the  family  of  Fuci. 

There  appears  to  have  been  a  considerable  in- 
terval between  the  epoch  when  the  chalk  was  de- 
posited, and  the  period  when  it  was  covered  with 
the  tertiary  strata  ;  during  which  the  surface  of 
the  extensive  mass  of  chalk  was  deeply  furrowed 
and  excavated,  before  a  new  series  of  strata  were 
deposited  upon  it,  destined  to  support  a  new  cre- 
ation of  animals  of  a  superior  class,  entirely  differ- 
ent from  those  which  have  left  their  remains  in 
the  subjacent  strata.  In  some  situations  how- 
ever, the  tertiary  strata  appear  to  rest  conformably 
on  chalk,  and  present  no  indications  of  any  inter- 
ruption in  the  succession  of  regular  deposits. 

The  Ferruginous  sand  Formation,  is  considered 
as  equivalent  to  the  cretaceous  group,  by  Dr. 
Morton,  who  describes  it  as  occupying  a  great 
part  of  the  triangular  peninsula  of  New  Jersey, 
formed  by  the  Atlantic ;  Delaware  and  Raritan 
rivers,  and  extending  across  the  state  of  Delaware, 
from  near  Delaware  city,  to  the  Chesapeake  ;  ap- 
pearing again  near  Annapolis  in  Maryland  ;  at 
Lynch's  Creek,  in  South  Carolina,  at  Cockspur 
Island,  in  Georgia  ;  and  several  places  in  Alabama, 
Florida  &c. 

When  Chalk  was  formed,  the  land  must  have 
been  again  submerged  as  it  had  been  in  some 


67 

previous  formations.  As  this  is  exclusively  a  ma- 
rine formation.  One  mile  below  the  surface  of 
this  formation  foot-marks  have  been  discovered, 
supposed  to  be  that  of  the  tortoise,  which  is  an 
amphibeous  animal.  No  viviparous  vertebrated 
animals  are  found  within  or  below  the  clialk  for- 
mation. All  animals  below  are  oviparous. 

Chalk  being  so  abundant  in  England,  gave  rise 
to  the  ancient  name  of  that  country,  Albion, 
meaning  whiteness  or  chalk.  This  substance 
covers  one  half  of  Europe. 

It  may  have  been  ejected  from  the  ancient  deep 
by  volcanic  energy. 

It  is  observed,  that  the  remains  of  fish  found  in 
chalk,  are  of  a  roundish  shape.  This  may  arise 
from  the  circumstance,  that  the  chalk  surrounded 
the  fish  in  a  soft  plastic  state,  like  a  pulp. 

In  the  flint  which  accompanies  chalk  there  are 
cavities  containing  animals.  In  the  original  for- 
mation, the  flint  was  probably  in  a  state  of  chem- 
ical solution,  and  coming  in  contact  with  organ- 
ized matter  deposited  itself  around  it.  In  this 
series  are  found  the  Sea  hedgehog,  and  the  teeth 
of  sharks  of  such  a  size  as  to  justify  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  animal  to  which  they  belonged  was 
fifty  eight  feet  in  length. 


Of  the  Tertiary  Formation. 

The  name  tertiary,  has  been  given  to  all  the 
strata  that  are  more  recent  than  the  secondary  ; 
it  is  called  by  De  la  Beche,  super  cretaceous,  but 
these  strata  may  cover  any  of  the  lower  rocks, 
and  in  some  parts  of  France  they  rest  on  granite, 
the  name  therefore  is  appropriate  when  applied 
to  designate  the  upper  strata. 

The  term  tertiary  is  applied  to  the  formations 
which  comprise  all  the  regular  strata  of  limestone, 
marl,  clay  and  sandstone,  that  have  been  deposited 
after  chalk. 

This  numerical  arrangement  has  been  made 
but  about  twenty  years.  The  term  first  began  to 
be  used  at  Paris  and  its  environs  ;  as  in  the  exca- 
vation in  and  around  that  city,  many  new  geolog- 
ical facts  had  been  developed.  A  long  period  of 
time  must  have  elapsed,  after  the  chalk  was  form- 
ed, before  the  tertiary  rocks  came  upon  it.  There 
are  excavations  in  the  form  of  basins,  made  in  the 
chalk  beds  which  are  filled  with  the  tertiary. 

It  is  widely  spread  over  many  parts  of  the  globe 
and  often  of  considerable  thickness. 


69 

Many  of  the  tertiary  beds  contain  the  bones  of 
the  higher  order  of  animals,  as  perfect  in  their 
organization  as  any  of  the  existing  species  of 
quadrupeds. 

It  presents  likewise  frequent  alternations  of 
beds,  containing  the  remains  of  marine  animals  ; 
with  other  beds  that  contain  exclusively  the  re- 
mains of  land  animals ;  and  plants,  and  fresh  wa- 
ter shells ;  hence  the  latter  beds  were  denomina- 
ted fresh  water  formations. 

The  fresh  water  formations  are  discoverable  in 
some  of  the  older  strata,  but  they  are  not  so  dis- 
tinctly marked  as  in  the  tertiary. 

In  some  parts  of  this  continent  the  line  of  sep- 
aration between  the  tertiary  and  secondary  is  not 
conspicuous,  or  very  faintly  so. 

The  tertiary  strata  form  the  outer  crust  of  the 
globe,  and  have  every  where,  been  subjected  to 
erosion  from  torrents  and  inundations,  or  floods 
that  have  swept  over  parts  of  its  surface,  and 
transported  the  substances  into  distant  countries, 
or  into  the  ocean.  It  is  impossible,  from  the 
present  localities  of  the  upper  strata,  to  determine, 
with  any  precision,  the  boundaries  of  the  inland 
lakes  or  seas  in  which  they  were  deposited.  Many 
of  these  strata  have,  evidently,  once  extended  far 
beyond  their  present  limits ;  but  have  been  so 
completely  destroyed,  that  we  can  infer  their  form- 
er existence,  only  from  a  few  remaining  detached 
portions. 

France,  more  than  scarcely  any  other  District, 
affords  an  excellent  example  of  the  different  strata. 
And  has  been  studied  with  ardor  and  success  by 


70 

the  celebrated  Cuvier  and  Brongniart.  Which 
has  tended  to  elucidate  many  facts,  and  afforded 
to  Geologists  data  on  which  to  found  their 
systems. 

Many  of  the  tertiary  beds  in  the  Paris  basins 
are  not  found  elsewhere,  and  therefore  cannot  in 
all  cases  be  taken  as  types  of  other  tertiary  for- 
mations ;  and  the  lower  bed  called  Plastic  day 
is  but  very  imperfectly  developed  near  Paris. 

In  attempting  to  generallize  the  tertiary  forma- 
tions a  difficulty  presents  itself,  if  we  are  to  class 
them  by  their  zoological  characters  ;  for  some  of 
the  formations,  which  in  certain  situations,  con- 
tain, exclusively  the  remains  of  marine  animals, 
present,  in  other  places,  river,  or  lake  shells,  with 
wood,  and  the  remains  of  land  animals.  It  is, 
therefore,  probable  that  while  the  waters  in  one 
Lake  were  saline,  those  in  another  might  be  fresh ; 
and  two  contemporaneous  formations  may  hence 
contain  very  different  organic  remains. 

Plastic  clay  and  marly  clay  with  sand  may  be 
considered  as  one  formation,  of  which  in  England 
and  France  the  plastic  clay  is  the  lowest,  resting 
on  chalk.  In  the  plastic  clay,  there  are  imperfect 
beds  of  wood  coal  (lignite)  ;  but  in  this  arid  Lon- 
don clay  the  remains  of  marine  animals  are  chiefly 
prevalent ;  though  intermixed  with  some  fresh 
water  shells.  The  beds  of  sand  are  of  conside- 
rable thickness.  The  bones  of  vertebrated  ani- 
mals of  the  higher  order  next  to  man,  and  the 
teeth  df  elephants  are  found  in  this  formation* 

In  some  places,  the  London,  or  marl  clay  is 
from  one  hundred  to  four  hundred  feet  thick. 


71 

This  clay  appears  to  be  the  limit  of  the  Saurian 
tribe. 

The  bones  of  a  species  of  crocodile  have  been 
found  in  this  clay.  Ammonites  and  Belemnites 
and  many  genera  of  testaceous  animals  which 
have  left  their  remains  in  chalk,  appear  to  have 
been  extinct  before  the  deposition  of  the  clay. 

Nautilites  have  been  found  in  the  clay,  similar 
to  those  now  inhabiting  the  Indian  ocean.  The 
shells  belong  mostly  to  genera  inhabiting  our  pres- 
ent seas,  though  of  different  species. 

The  water  arising  from  springs  in  this  forma- 
tion generally,  contains  sulphate  and  muriate  of 
lime,  magnesia  and  iron. 

This  formation  contains  the  remains  of  the 
narrow  toothed  Mastodon,  and  of  other  mam- 
malia. 

In  France,  a  coarse  limestone  called  calcaire 
grassier,  is  deposited  on  the  plastic  clay.  It  is 
a  yellowish  earthy  limestone,  not  Oolite.  It  alter- 
nates with  argillaceous  marl  and  shale,  and  with 
calcareous  marl.  It  is  found  to  be  one  hundred 
and  twelve  feet  in  thickness. 

In  this  are  found  the  fossil  nummulite,  so  named 
on  account  of  its  being  flat  and  round,  resembling 
money,  or  small  coin.  It  also  contains  numerous 
porous  shells,  and  the  bones  of  the  Walrus. 

Thin  strata  of  flint,  or  chert  are  often  found  in 
this  formation. 

Siliceous  limestone  also  occurs  in  small  quan- 
tities. 

Gypsum  alternates  with  argillaceous  beds  and 
calcareous  marl.  Although  gypsum  occurs  lower 
down. 


72 

The  gypsum  beds  are  covered  in  Paris  by  ma- 
rine sand  and  sandstone.  The  sandstone  is  often 
composed  of  transparent  pure  silex,  and  contains 
occasionally  small  scales  of  mica.  This  is  called 
the  upper  marine  formation. 

The  marine  sand  and  sandstone  are  sometimes 
covered  with  a  bed  of  argillaceous  and  frrugin- 
eous  marl  in  which  are  imbedded  layers  of  horn- 
stone,  full  of  holes  or  cavities,  which  forms  the 
burrh  stone,  used  as  millstones.  When  unmixed 
they  are  pure  silex.  Color  reddish  or  yellow ; 
containing  no  shells  or  organic  remains. 

In  the  tertiary  formation,  we  first  come  to  the 
remains  of  viviparous  animals,  or  those  which  pro- 
duce their  young  alive ;  which  fact  shows  that 
land  had  now  been  provided  for  them.  These 
animals,  of  which  there  are  several  hundreds,  are 
now  extinct.  They  lived  at  a  time  when  the  re- 
gion in  the  vicinity  consisted  of  low  marshes, 
islands  and  lakes. 

This  petrifaction  of  animals  is  not  peculiar  to 
the  epoch  when  the  rock  formations  were  effected 
but  takes  place  at  the  present  day,  in  seas,  springs, 
and  lakes. 

Upper ]  Fresh  water  Formation,  so  called,  be- 
cause the  shells  found  in  it  are  analogous  to  those 
of  fresh  water.  It  consists  of  calcareous  and 
siliceous  earth,  pebbles  worn  by  attrition,  marly 
clay,  sand,  gravel,  and  debris. 

The  tertiary  formations  have  been  deposited 
from  materials  diffused,  or  dissolvd  in  water,  in 
independant  basins  and  at  various  epochs.  The 
remains  of  dicotyledonous  plants,  fresh  water 


73 

shells  mixed  with  the  remains  of  sharks,  alcyonia, 
crabs  and  marine  shells,  seem  to  indicate  that 
these  strata  were  deposited  in  estuaries  which 
were  occasionally  inundated  by  fresh  water. 

During  the  period  in  which  these  strata  were 
deposited,  violent  convulsions  succeeded  by  long 
intervals  of  repose,  took  place  •;  by  which  some 
of  the  mountains  on  the  globe  were  elevated,  and 
portions  of  those  formations  elevated  with  them  ; 
so  as  now  to  cap  their  summits. 

The  tertiary  formations  are  distinguished  from 
diluvium  and  alluvium  by  a  much  finer  state  of 
most  of  the  materials  that  compose  them,  by  the 
greater  regularity  of  their  stratification,  and  by 
their  containing  peculiar  organic  remains. 

Diluvium  includes  that  coating  of  gravel,  sand 
and  loam  which  is  spread  over  almost  every  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  which  has  been 
obviously  mingled  confusedly  together  by  power- 
ful currents  of  water. 

This  has  been  refered  by  some  to  the  agency 
of  a  general  deluge  ;  but  probably  there  were 
several  deluges,  partial  or  general,  concerned  in 
bringing  about  the  present  state  of  the  surface  of 
our  globe.  Others  regard  diluvium  as  the  result 
of  various  agencies,  operating  at  different  periods; 
among  which  are  the  floods  produced  by  the  ele- 
vation of  the  rock  strata  at  several  times.  But 
they  do  not  admit  that  we  have  in  this  diluvium 
any  evidence  of  a  deluge  contemporaneous  with  that 
described  by  Moses.  They  do  not  deny  the  occur- 
rence of  the  Noacan  deluge,  they  merely  say, 
that  Geology  does  not  furnish  sufficient  evidence 


74 

of  such  a  catastrophe,  although  it  affords  no  evi- 
dence to  the  contrary,  but  rather  a  presumption 
in  its  favor,  in  the  fact  so  abundantly  proved  by 
the  records  of  Geology,  that  numerous  deluges 
have  occurred  since  the  creation. 

The  transient  deluge  of  Moses  could  not  have 
produced  all  the  diluvium  which  is  now  spread 
over  the  surface  of  this  continent.  This  idea  can- 
not be  entertained  on  scientific  principles,  and  is 
utterly  repugnant  to  common  sense  and  common 
observation. 

Alluvium,  this  contains  debris  of  rocks,  sand, 
gravel,  clay  &c.,  together  with  decomposed  ani- 
mals and  vegetables  carried  by,  and  deposited 
from  water.  The  causes  are  daily  operating,  and 
unlike  the  other  formations,  it  is  forming  in  many 
places  every  year. 

The  most  common  is  that  produced  by  the  over- 
flowing of  rivers,  and  it  forms  the  most  valuable 
agricultural  district. 

Coast  Alluvium  is  that  produced  byjides  and 
currents  of  the  ocean,  which  frequently  transport 
large  quantities  of  soil  from  one  place  to  another. 

Salt  marsh  Alluvium,  results  from  the  joint  ac- 
tion of  two  and  sometimes  three  causes.  1 .  The 
decay  of  salt  marsh  plants.  2.  The  silt  brought 
over  the  marsh  by  tides.  3.  From  the  alluvial 
soils  brought  down  by  streams. 

Peat,  or  the  deposite  on  the  bottoms  of  ponds, 
lakes  and  estuaries,  various  equatic  plants  take 
root,  and  by  their  decay  increase  the  deposite. 
At  length  the  pulpy  mass  nearly  reaches  the  sur- 
face, sphagnus  and  other  mosses  take  root  in  it, 


75 

with  numerous  other  plants,  and  by  their  gradual 
decomposition  the  pond  or  lake  becomes  convert- 
ed, in  process  of  time,  into  a  swamp  or  marsh  ; 
the  lower  part  of  this  marsh  will  be  found  to  be 
converted  into  perfect  compact  peat,  with  alter- 
nate layers  of  mud,  the  next  stratum  will  be  less 
compact,  and  the  upper  will  be  interlaced  fibres 
and  roots  with  very  little  earth. 

In  the  vicinity  of  limestone,  marl  is  found  in 
alluvium  composed  of  lime  and  fine  clay. 

Alluvium  of  disintegration,  is  that  jformed  by 
the  wearing  away  of  rocks  by  water  and  attrition. 

Many  rocks  are  liable  to  disentegration,  such 
as  sandstone,  gneiss,  some  species  of  greywacke, 
Mica  and  talcose  slate  &c. 

Alluvium  of  degradation,  is  that  which  arises 
from  the  wearing  down  of  mountains  and  hills, 
and  is  the  deposite  of  valleys,  occasioned  by  rains, 
frosts  and  gravity. 

That  mountains  are  lessening  in  height  appears 
evident  from  observation,  and  as  a  proof  that  the 
surface  of  the  globe  has  not  existed  in  its  present 
state  eternally,  as  some  would  unphilosophically 
imagine,  but  as  it  was  successively  formed,  so  it  is 
successively  wearing  away. 


On  Volcanoes. 

Volcanoes  are  openings  made  in  the  earthTs 
surface  by  internal  tires.  From  these  are  regu- 
larly, or  at  intervals,  ejected  smoke,  vapor,  flame, 
large  stones  and  sand,  or  melted  stones  called  lava. 

Some  throw  out  mud  and  water. 

There  are  between  two  and  three  hundred  ac- 
tive volcanoes  now  on  the  globe, 

They  are  most  frequently  situated  near  the  sea, 
or  in  the  vicinity  of  large  lakes,  and  they  break 
out  from  unfathomable  depths  below  the  surface 
of  the  ocean,  and  form  islands. 

When  a  volcano  breaks  out  in  a  new  situation, 
it  is  preceded  by  violent  earthquakes,  rumbling 
subterranean  noises,  the  ground  is  heated  and 
swelled  up,  at  length  a  rent,  or  fissure  is  made 
sometimes  of  vast  extent. 

Through  this  opening,  masses  of  rock  with 
flame,  smoke  and  lava  are  thrown  out,  choke  up 
part  of  the  passage,  and  confine  the  eruption  to 
one  aperture  or  more,  around  which  Conical  hills 
or  mountains  are  formed. 


77 

The  concavity  in  the  centre  is  called  the  crater. 

The  following  are  the  prognostics  of  an  erup- 
tion from  a  dormant  volcano. 

1.  An  increase  of  smoke  from  the  summit, 
which  sometimes  rises  to  a  great  height.  2.  Tre- 
mendous explosions  like  the  firing  of  artillery, 
which  are  succeeded  by  red  colored  flames,  and 
showers  of  stones.  3.  Ejection  of  lava  from  the 
top  of  the  crater,  or  through  the  sides  of  the 
mountain.  This  has  been  known  to  continue 
several  months. 

The  lava  in  time  becomes  consolidated,  form- 
ing a  stony  mass  often  not  less  than  some  hun- 
dred square  miles  in  extent. 

After  the  lava  ceases  to  flow,  intensely  black 
clouds,  composed  of  a  dark  sand  or  powder,  im- 
properly called  ashes,  are  thrown  out  of  the  crater, 
and  sometimes,  at  noon  day,  involve  the  country 
in  total  darkness.  Toward  the  conclusion,  the 
color  of  the  volcanic  ashes  changes  to  white,  this 
is  pumice  in  a  finely  comminuted  state. 

When  the  lava  flows  freely,  the  earthquakes 
are  less  frequent  and  violent,  which  affords  a 
proof  that  they  were  occasioned  by  the  confine- 
ment of  the  erupted  matter  both  gaseous  and  solid. 

The  seat  of  the  volcano  is  not  in  the  mountain 
itself,  this  is  merely  a  chimney  or  vent  for  the  gas- 
eous and  solid  fluid.  For  in  some  eruptions  the 
matter  ejected  exceeds  in  solid  contents  the  moun- 
tain itself;  and  this  during  several  eruptions,  yet 
the  mountain  remains  stationary  neither  do  its 
sides  fall  in ;  a  proof  that  the  fire  is  not  in  the 
mountain. 

G2 


78 

Kircher  informs  us,  that  up  to  the  year  1660, 
the  ejections  from  ./Etna  would  equal  a  mass 
twenty  times  as  large  as  the  mountain  itself.  In 
1775,  the  same  volcano  poured  out  another 
stream  of  lava  twelve  miles  in  length,  one  mile 
and  a  half  in  breadth,  and  two  hundred  feet  high. 

Submarine  volcanoes  are  preceded  by  a  vio- 
lent boiling  and  agitation  of  the  water,  and  by  the 
discharge  of  volumes  of  gas  and  vapour.,  which 
take  fire  and  roll  in  sheets  of  flame  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  Masses  of  rock  are  darted 
with  great  violence  through  the  water,  and  accu- 
mulate until  they  form  islands.  Sometimes  dur- 
ing an  eruption  the  crater  rises  out  of  the  sea. 

Some  volcanoes  throw  out  aqueous  torrents, 
mixed  with  sand  and  stones.  The  volcanoes  in 
S.  America  oftener  throw  out  these  substances, 
than  lava.  And  some,  according  to  Humbolt,  have 
thrown  out  small  fish,  which  resembled  those  in 
the  lake  near  the  mountain. 

Volcanoes  frequently  occur  in  groups,  some- 
times arranged  along  a  line,  as  if  formed  over  a 
vast  chasm. 

In  South  America,  they  are  arranged  in  rows 
sometimes  in  one  line,  and  sometimes  in  two  par- 
allel lines ;  generally  in  the  same  direction  as 
those  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  sometimes  they  form 
an  angle  with  it  of  70  deg. 

The  volcanoes  of  Mexico  form  a  narrow  zone, 
between  lat.  18  deg.  59  min.  and  19  deg.  12.  min. 
This  is  regarded  as  a  vast  chasm  750  miles  in 
length  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

There  appears  to  be  a  connection  between  vol- 
canoes at  a  vast  distance  from  each  other. 


79 


It  is  highly  probable  from  the  remains  of  an- 
cient volcanoes,  that  their  action  was  much 
more  intense  than  at  present. 

The  only  formations  of  hard  crystalline  rocks, 
in  the  present  day,  are  volcanic ;  and  if  we  trace 
the  connection  which  exists  between  modern  and 
ancient  volcanic  rocks,  and  between  the  latter 
and  the  rocks  of  trap  and  porphyry  among  the 
aucient  rock  formations,  we  shall  extend  the  in- 
fluence of  volcanic  fire  over  a  great  portion  of 
the  globe. 

Pseudo  Volcanoes.  This  name  has  been  given 
to  those  accidental  combustions  of  beds  of  coal. 
There  are  instances  of  coal  beds  being  on  fire  for 
many  years.  Some  of  the  coal  beds  near  Pitts- 
burg,  Pa.  have  been  on  fire  for  upwards  of  forty 
years,  and  are  continually  emitting  smoke  from 
their  summits.  The  beds  of  clay  associated  with 
the  coal  is  converted  into  a  substance  resembling 
Jasper. 

The  sulphuret  of  iron  and  carbonaceous  matter 
contained  in  the  clay  and  other  minerals  associ- 
ated with  the  coal,  decompose  rapidly  when 
moistened  with  water.  During  the  decomposition 
sufficient  heat  is  evolved  to  ignite  the  bituminous 
matter  in  the  coal,  and  when  once  ignited,  it  will 
burn  foj  a  long  period. 

The  earth  itself  is,  in  all  probability,  the  great 
laboratory,  in  which  by  the  aid  of  subterranean 
heat,  are  combined  and  prepared  the  mineral  sub- 
stances that  compose  the  hard  crystalline  crust  of 
the,  globe. 

All  the  minerals  which  compose  primary  rocks 


80 

occur  in  a  perfect  state  in  modern  or  ancient  vol- 
canoes. 

The  substances  ejected  from  volcanoes  belong 
to  the  four  grand  divisions  of  the  mineral  king- 
dom, the  inflammable,  saline,  metallic  and  earthy. 

The  inflammable  substances  are  sulphur,  car- 
bon and  hydrogen. 

Sulphur  combined  with  oxygen  forms  sulphu- 
rous and  sulphuric  acid. 

Carbon  combined  with  hydrogen  forms  bitumen, 
and  carburetted  hydrogen  gas. 

The  Saline  products  are  alum,  sulphate  of  iron 
and  copper,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  gypsum,  muri- 
ate of  Ammonia,  muriate  of  Soda,  muriate  of 
Copper,  muriate  of  Iron  and  muriatic  acid. 

The  metallic  substances,  are  iron,  titanium, 
antim6ny,  copper,  manganese,  tellurium,  Gold. 
Iron  in  different  combinations,  occurs  in  the  fis- 
sures of  many  volcanoes  ;  also  specular  oxide  of 
iron. 

The  earthy  products  are  either  vitreous,  or 
stony,  scoriaceous,  or  spongy,  or  in  loose  grains, 
or  powder. 

Volcanic  rocks  are  chiefly  composed  of  feldspar 
and  the  dark  colored  mineral  called  augite.  Con- 
tents ;  hornblende,  magnetic  iron  ore,  olivine,  mi- 
ca, leucite,  iron  pyrites,  garnets,  rubies,  and 
zircon. 

The  white  or  grey  lava  is  composed  principally 
of  feldspar,  to  which  the  French  have  given  the 
name  Trachyte  ;  the  common  or  stony  has  a  white 
or  greyish  color,  fracture  dull  and  more  or  less 
fine  grained.  Lustre  glistening,  when  compact, 


81 

it  is  called  pearl  stone.  It  melts  readily,  into  a 
grey  ishglass.  Pumice  appears  to  be  formed  from 
trachyte  by  an  intense  heat. 

Obsidian,  or  volcanic  glass  so  nearly  resembles 
lumps  of  black  glass  that  it  can  scarcely  be  dis- 
tinguished by  an  unpractised  observer.  Color, 
velvet  black  ;  thin  pieces  translucent.  Harder 
than  glass  and  strikes  fire  with  steel. 

Basalt,  is  a  volcanic  product,  colors  greyish 
black,  brownish  grey,  or  bluish  black  ;  occurs  in 
amorphous  masses,  or  in  globular,  columnar,  or 
tabular  forms  ;  fracture  splintery,  or  coarse  grain- 
ed, uneven  ;  sometimes  conchoidal,  lustre  feebly 
glimmering,  or  dull ;  streak,  ash  grey  ;  often  po- 
rous, or  vescicular.  It  is  often  porphyritic,  con- 
taining imbedded  crystals  of  hornblende,  olivine, 
feldspar,  quartz,  mica,  analcime,  clay  &c. 

Columnar  basalt,  occurs  in  columns  of  a  pris- 
matic form,  having  from  three  to  nine  plane  sides, 
most  commonly  five,  or  six.  These  columns  are 
of  all  sizes  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in 
diameter,  and  sometimes  nearly  100  feet  high, 
occasionally  straight,  but  often  curved  ;  they  are 
jointed,  or  composed  of  several  pieces  of  the  same 
shape  and  dimensions,  lying  one  on  the  other,  the 
end  of  one  being  convex  and  the  other  concave, 
so  as  to  fit  each  other  like  a  ball  and  socket. 

Various  theories  have  been  adopted  for  the  ex- 
planation of  volcanic  phenomena,  none  of  which 
are  perfectly  satisfactory :  the  real  causes  appear 
to  be  subjects  of  conjecture.  We  are  familiar 
with  some  of  the  effects  ;  though  with  the  districts 
most  ravaged  by  the  erupted  matter,  Ite  are  fav 


82 

from  being  well  acquainted ;  our  principle  knowl- 
edge of  volcanoes  being  derived  from  the  two 
largest  active  vents  of  Europe,  ^Etna  and  Vesu- 
vius, but  principally  from  the  latter.  ^Etna  cov- 
ers a  cpnsiderable  surface,  but  Vesuvius  sinks  into 
insignificance,  when  compared  with  some  of  the 
great  volcanoes  of  the  world. 

From  their  general  proximity  to,  or  occurrence 
in  the  sea,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  active 
state  of  volcanoes  has  been  produced  by  the  per- 
colation of  sea-water  to  certain  metallic  bases  of 
the  earth's  or  alkalies -at  various  depths  beneath 
the  surface,  which  metallic  bases  being  thus  in- 
flamed, cause  the  phenomena  observed  in  vol- 
canic eruptions.  The  volcanoes  in  the  interior 
of  Mexico  and  in  Tartary,  have  been  accounted 
for,  by  the  advocates  of  this  theory ;  the  former, 
by  supposing  a  connexion  between  the  vents  of 
Calima,  Jorullo,  Pococatepetl  and  Orizaba,  all 
situated  in  the  same  line  ;  the  latter,  by  consider- 
ing the  waters  of  salt  lakes  may  percolate  to  their 
foci.  As  the  first  chemical  operation,  if  this  the- 
ory was  true,  would  be  the  union  of  the  oxygen 
with  the  metallic  bases,  and  the  escape  of  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  hydrogen,  M.  Gay  Lussac  has 
objected  to  it,  that  pure  hydrogen  is  not  evolved 
from  volcanoes ;  because,  if  it  were  present,  it 
would  be  inflamed  by  the  red  hot  matter  ejected 
from  the  crater.  Dr.  Daubeny,  on  the  other 
hand,  supposes  the  hydrogen  to  have  combined 
in  its  nascent  state  with  sulphur,  and  the  two  bod- 
ies to  have  been  evolved  in  the  form  of  sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen  gas.  He  also  considers  that  the 


83 

presence  of  a  large   quantity  of  muriatic   acid 
would  destroy  the  inflammability  of  the  hydrogen. 

According  to  the  same  author,  the  gasses  evolv- 
ed from  volcanoes  consist  of  muriatic  acid  gas, 
sulphur  combined  with  oxygen,  or  hydrogen,  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  nitrogen  ;  and  a  quantity  of 
aqueous  vapor. 

A  large  portion  of  the  globe  is  volcanic,  or  is 
the  effect  of  volcanic  agency.  The  whole  of  Ice- 
land may  be  considered  little  less  than  a  volcanic 
mass,  in  which  there  are  many  apertures  for  the 
ejection  of  lava,  ashes  and  other  products.  The 
igneous  matter  struggles  to  escape  in  various 
places,  and  consequently,  many  single  eruptions 
from  different  points  have  taken  place  since  the" 
records  of  history.  There  have  been  twenty-two 
eruptions  from  Hecla  since  1004;  seven  from 
Kattlagian  Jokul  since  900  ;  and  four  from  Krabla 
since  1724 

In  Iceland,  the  eruptions  are  not  confined  to 
the  immediate  dry  land,  but  have  pierced  through 
the  sea  in  the  vicinity.  In  January,  1 783,  a  vol- 
canic eruption,  described  as  flame,  rose  through 
the  sea;  several  islands  were  observed,  as  if 
raised  from  beneath,  and  a  reef  of  rocks  exists 
where  these  appearances  were  observed.  Ac- 
cording to  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  the  flames  last- 
ed several  months,  during  which,  vast  quantities 
of  pumice  were  washed  on  shore.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  June,  earthquakes  shook  the  whole  of 
Iceland  ;  the  flames  in  the  sea  disappeared  ;  and 
the  dreadful  eruption  commenced  from  the  Shap- 
tar  Jakul,  which  is  nearly  two  hundred  miles  dis- 


84 

tant  from  the  spot  where  the  marine  eruption  took 
place. 

Another  marine  eruption  occurred  near  the 
same  island,  in  June  13,  1830;  an  island  was 
formed  and  consequent  eruptions  were  appre- 
hended in  the  interior. 

There  are  numerous  islands  composed  entirely 
of  volcanic  matter  in  different  oceans,  many  of 
them  are  now  on  arches  of  fire  ;  and  in  some,  ac- 
tive volcanoes  still  exist.  The  dome  or  cone  not 
giving  way  before  the  pressure  of  water,  but  grad- 
ually accumulating  a  mass  of  lava,  cinders  and 
ashes,  so  that  the  islands  have  become  firm,  and 
even  of  considerable  size.  Owyhee,  or  Hawaii, 
is  perhaps  a  magnificent  example  of  such  an  isl- 
and. The  whole  mass,  estimated  as  exposing  a 
surface  of  four  thousand  square  miles,  is  compos- 
ed of  lava,  or  other  volcanic  matter,  which  rises 
in  the  peaks  of  Mouna  Rou  and  Mouna  Kaah,  to 
the  height  of  between  fifteen  thousand  and  sixteen 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Ellis,  the  crater  of  Kiranea  is  sit* 
uated  in  a  lofty,  elevated  plain,  bounded. by  a  prec- 
ipice fifteen  or  sixteen  miles  in  circumference, 
apparently  sunk  from  two  to  four  hundred  feet 
below  its  original  level.  "The  surface  of  this 
plain  was  uneven,  and  strewed  over  with  loose 
stones  and  volcanic  rock  ;  and  in  the  centre  of  it 
was  the  great  crater,  at  a  distance  of  a  mile  and 
a  half  from  the  place  where  we  were  standing. 
We  walked  on  to  the  north  end  of  the  ridge, 
where  the  precipice  being  less  steep,  a  descent 
to  the  plain  below  seemed  practicable.  After 


85 

Walking  some  distance  over  the  sunken  plain, 
which  in  several  places  sounded  hollow  under  our 
feet,  we,  at  length,  came  to  the  edge  of  the  great 
crater,  where  a  spectacle,  sublime  and  even  ap- 
palling, presented  itself.  Immediately  before  us 
yawned  an  immense  gulf,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent, 
about  two  miles  in  length,  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W., 
nearly  a  mile  in  width,  and  apparently  eight  hun- 
dred feet  deep.  The  bottom  was  covered  with 
lava,  and  the  southwest  and  northern  parts  of  it 
were  one  vast  flood  of  burning  matter,  in  the  state 
of  ebullition,  rolling  too  and  fro  its  fiery  surge,  and 
flaming  billows.  Fifty-one  conical  islands  of  va- 
ried form  and  size,  containing  as  many  craters, 
rose  either  round  the  edge,  or  from  the  surface  of 
the  burning  lake  ;  twenty-two  constantly  emitted 
columns  of  grey  smoke,  or  pyramids  of  brilliant 
flame ;  and  several  of  these,  at  the  same  time 
vomited  from  their  ignited  mouths,  streams  of  la- 
va, which  rolled  in  blazing  torrents  down  their 
black  indented  sides  into  the  mass  below."  From 
the  existence  of  these  cones,  it  was  concluded, 
that  the  mass  of  boiling  lava  resulted  from  the 
streams  poured  from  the  craters  into  this  upper 
reservoir,  which  appeared  to  vary  in  its  level ;  for 
there  were  marks  on  the  rocks  bounding  it,  which 
indicated  that  the  great  crater  had  been  recently 
filled  up  three  or  four  hundred  feet  higher  to  a 
black  ledge,  whence  there  was  a  slope  to  the  hot 
fluid  mass." 

The  depth  of  water  round  Owhyhee,  and  in- 
deed round  the  Sandwich  Islands  generally,  is  so 
great,  that  they  are  somewhat  dangerous  to  ap- 
H 


86 

proach  in  stormy  weather,  as  anchorage  cannot 
be  obtained,  except  close  to  the  land  ;  which 
seems  to  demonstrate  that  these  volcanic  masses 
rise  from  considerable  depths,  and  are  only  partly 
out  of  water. 

The  number  of  volcanoes  which  border  the 
Pacific  ocean  or  occur  in  it,  or  in  that  part  of  the 
Indian  ocean  in  the  vicinity  of  Java  far  exceeds 
that  of  any  other  part  of  the  world.  From  Terra 
del  Fuego  they  occur  northerly  through  the  range 
of  the  Andes,  often  attaining  very  considerable 
elevations.  In  Mexico,  the  northerly  line  is  met 
by  an  east  and  west  line,  connecting  it  with  the 
volcanoes  in  the  West  India  Islands.  In  Calafor- 
nia  there  are  three  volcanoes  of  which  one,  Mt. 
Elias,  is  variously  estimated  from  thirteen  thou- 
sand to  seventeen  thousand  feet  in  height.  Amer- 
ica is  connected  by  means  of  volcanic  vents  of  the 
Aleutian,  or  Fox  Islands.  From  Kamptschatka 
southward,  volcanoes  are  observed  in  the  Kurule 
Islands,  Japan,  the  Soo  Choo  Isles,  Formosa  and 
the  Philippines.  From  the  latter,  a  range  ol  vol- 
canic vents  proceed  to  nearly  latitude  10  deg., 
S.  ranges  westward  along  this  parallel  for  about 
twenty-five  degrees  of  longitude,  and  then  turns 
up  N.  W  diagonally  through  about  twenty  deg* 
of  latitude,  This  line,  which,  when  represented 
on  maps,  resembles  an  enormous  fish  hook,  passes 
from  the  Phillipinesby  the  N.  E.  point  of  Celebes, 
Gilolo,  the  volcanic  isles  between  New  Guinea 
and  Timor,  Floris,  Sumbawa,  Java  and  Sumatra, 
to  Barren  Island. 

Active  volcanoes  are  not  so  abundant  in,  or  on 


87 

the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  In  fact  the  shores  of 
this  ocean  in  Europe,  Africa  and  America,  ap- 
pear free  from  them,  at  the  present  time  ;  if  we 
except  Mexico,  and  the  land  connecting  the  main 
body  of  N.  America  with  the  Southern  continent, 
which  may  be  considered  as  common  to  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  oceans.  A  volcano  has  been 
discovered  off  the  main  land  of  Greenland.  It  is 
situated  in  the  island  of  Jan  Magen,  and  presents 
marks  of  recent  eruption.  Its  crater  is  about  five 
hundred  feet  deep,  and  two  thousand  feet  in  di- 
ameter. 

Teneriffe  affords  the  greatest  volcanic  eleva- 
tion in  the  Atlantic,  the  Peak  rising  two  thousand 
two  hundred  and  sixteen  feet. 

It  is  computed  that  there  are  twenty  volcanic 
eruptions  every  year  on  the  globe,  of  more  or 
less  activity. 

There  are  eighty  principal  volcanic  eminences 
connected  with  ^Etna. 

Many  volcanoes  are  known  to  have  been  burn- 
ing for  a  long  period  of  time.  Stromboli  has 
been  in  a  state  of  eruption  for  two  thousand  years. 

Volcanoes  appear  to  be  among  the  instruments 
used  by  the  Author  of  Nature  for  the  production 
of  the  various  mineral  forms,  found  in  the  crust 
of  the  globe.  As  all  fused  substances  will  tend 
to  crystallize,  or  arrange  their  component 
parts  more  compactly,  where  their  liquidity 
continues  the  longest,  and  their  loss  of  tempera- 
ture is  the  slowest,  we  find  that  lava  currents  arc 
always  more  crystalline,  or  compact  in  their  inte- 
rior parts  ;  and  that  dykes  cutting  volcanic  cones 


88 

are  generally  more  compact  and  crystalline  to- 
wards their  interior  parts  than  towards  their  walls 
or  sides.  It  has  been  inferred  from  the  appear- 
ance and  distribution  of  the  ejected  matters,  that 
many  volcanic  rocks  have  not  been  formed  in  the 
atmosphere,  but  beneath  seas,  and  that  they  have 
been  subsequently  elevated.  The  ashes  aud  pum- 
ice ejected  from  volcanoes  seem  to  be,  merely 
the  lighter  substance  floating  on  the  surface  of 
the  great  fused  and  incandescent  mass  within, 
produced  by  the  action  of  elastic  vapors,  or  by 
the  intumescence  of  that  matter  under  diminished 
pressure.  The  force  required  to  eject  such  light 
substances,  is  evidently  far  inferior  to  that  nece- 
sary  for  the  propulsion  of  the  more  solid  lava, 
consequently  the  one  is  more  common  than  the 
other. 

Volcanic  substances  vary  from  the  lightest  ash- 
es to  a  highly  crystalline  rock,  the  intermediate 
states  being  vitreous  and  of  the  character  of 
obsidian. 

The  quantity  of  minerals  detected  in  volcanic 
products  is  very  great,  a  circumstance  by  no  means 
surprising,  when  we  consider  the  various  elemen- 
tary substances  acted  upon  by  heat  in  the  bowels 
of  a  volcano,  and  having  a  tendency  to  combine 
with  each  other  in  various  ways. 

The  most  abundant  rock  in  New  England  which 
appears  to  have  a  connection  with  volcanoes  is 
trap,  or  greenstone.  This  abounds  throughout 
the  Connecticut  valley,  in  the  states  of  Massachu- 
setts and  Connecticut.  It  presents  what  are  call' 
ed  mural  fronts,  of  regular  slope,  from  the  vertex 


89 

down  to  the  ruins,  which  generally  lie  in  large 
masses  below  the  columns.  The  form  of  this 
rock  is  prismatic,  and  its  cracking  is  vertical,  so 
that  the  water  enters  into  it,  freezes,  expands, 
and  thus  breaks  down  the  walls.  It  is  supposad 
to  have  been  once  melted,  and  therefore  a  pro- 
duction of  internal  fire. 

There  are  marks  of  volcanic  action  in  other 
parts  of  the  U.  States,  besides  the  Connecticut 
valley.  The  trap  rocks  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston  ; 
in  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  ;  the  Palisadoes 
on  the  Hudson,  N.  Y.  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
Green  Mountains  in  Vermont,  indicate  volcanic 
influence  at  some  remote  period  in  the  existence 
of  our  planet. 

Psuedo  Volcanoes  have  been  frequent  in  some 
parts  of  our  country,  particularly  in  the  vicinity 
of  iron  and  copper  mines.  Probably  occasioned 
by  the  decomposition  of  Pyrites. 


H2 


On  Earthquakes. 

Earthquakes  and  volcanoes  may  be  considered 
as  different  effects,  produced  by  the  agency  of 
subterranean  fire.  They  frequently  accompany 
each  other,  and  in  most  instances  the  first  erup- 
tion is  preceded  by  an  earthquake  of  greater  or 
less  extent.  They  are  more  frequent  in  volcanic 
districts  than  any  other,  though  they  are  not  pe- 
culiar to  those  districts. 

PROGNOSTICS. 

An  uncommon  agitation  of  the  waters  of  the 
ocean  and  lakes  ;  ejection  of  mud  from  springs, 
accompanied  with  a  fetid  odour.  Air  generally 
calm.  Animals  discover  much  alarm  and  appear 
to  be  instinctively  aware  of  approaching  calamity. 
A  deep  rumbling  noise  like  carriages  over  a  rough 
pavement,  a  rushing  sound  like  wind,  or  a  tre- 
mendous explosion  like  that  of  artillery,  immedi- 
ately precede  the  shock,  which  suddenly  heaves 
the  ground  upwards,  or  tosses  it  from  side  to  side 
with  violent  and  successive  vibrations. 


91 

One  shock  seldom  lasts  more  than  a  minute, 
but  is  frequently  succeeded  by  others  of  greater, 
or  less  violence,  which  for  a  considerable  time 
continue  to  agitate  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

During  these  shocks,  large  chasms  are  frequent- 
ly made  in  the  earth,  through  which  flame  and 
smoke  issue  ;  these  sometimes  break  out  where 
no  chasms  can  be  perceived.  Frequently  stones 
arid  torrents  of  water  are  ejected  from  these  open- 
ings. Cities  have  sunk  down  or  been  engulphed 
in  those  openings,  and  a  stagnant  lake  has  occu- 
pied the  situation. 

In  some  instances,  the  extent  of  the  effects  of 
earthquakes  is  very  great.  During  the  earth- 
quake of  Lisbon  1774,  almost  all  the  springs  and 
lakes  in  Britain,  and  every  part  of  Europe  and 
some  parts  of  the  United  States  were  violently 
agitated,  and  the  waters  of  Lake  Ontario,  were 
violently  troubled  at  the  same  time.  Hence  we 
conclude  that  there  are  subterranean  communi- 
cations under  large  portions  of  the  globe,  and 
that  large  quantities  of  elastic  vapour  are  gene- 
rated and  endeavoring  to  escape.  The  gas  ap- 
pears to  be  hydrogen  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

In  some  instances  it  may  be  steam  which  con- 
densing would  produce  a  vacuum,  and  cause  the 
external  air  to  press  downwards. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  every  extensive  earth- 
quake is  succeeded  by  a  volcanic  eruption  more 
or  less  distant. 

The  cause  of  earthquakes  and  volcanic  erup- 
tions is  deeply  seated  below  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  On  the  same  day  on  which  Lisbon  was 


92 

nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  one  fourth  of 
the  northern  hemisphere  felt  the  shock,  including 
all  Europe,  a  great  part  of  northern  Africa,  the 
United  States  and  West  Indies.  The  bed  of  the 
Atlantic  was  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  ocean, 
in  many  places,  and  flames  and  vapour  were  dis- 
charged; this  was  observed  by  vessels  at  sea. 

The  cause  which  must  produce  a  simultaneous 
concussion  over  such  a  vast  extent,  must  proba- 
bly be  seated  about  midway  between  the  surface, 
and  centre  of  the  earth. 

Earthquakes  in  general  are  more  severely  felt 
in  mountainous  than  in  low  countries. 

All  the  phenomena  that  accompany  earth- 
quakes indicate  the  intense  operation  of  elastic 
vapour,  expanding  and  endeavoring  to  escape 
where  the  least  resistance  is  presented,  and  pro- 
ducing vibrations  of  the  solid  strata. 

The  horrid  crash  like  the  rattling  of  carriages, 
which  precedes  earthquakes,  may  be  occasioned 
by  the  rending  of  the  rocks,  or  parting  of  the  strata 
through  which  the  confined  vapour  is  forcing  a 
passage. 

If  there  be  a  central  fire  under  every  part  of 
the  globe,  or  if  certain  spaces  only  are  filled  with 
igneous  matter,  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  chem- 
ical changes  are  continually  going  on,  which  will 
also  change  the  electrical  relations  between  min- 
eral beds.  A  series  of  strata  may  act  like  the 
plates  of  an  immense  voltaic  battery,  and  dis- 
charge the  electricity  from  one  part  of  the  globe 
to  another,  creating  vibrations  that  may  agitate 
a  whole  hemisphere.  Subterranean  thunder  is 


93 

often  heard  in  the  district  of  the  Andes  and  the 
Himmelah  mountains  which  are  followed  by  earth- 
quakes. 

Earthquakes  and  volcanoes  appear  to  be  the 
great  agents  employed  by  the  Author  of  Nature, 
to  bring  about  the  present  condition  of  our  planet 
for  the  convenience  and  sustenance  of  man,  to 
elevate  new  and  submerge  ancient  continents, 
and  to  renovate  the  surface  of  the  globe,  every 
where.  And  as  these  changes  are  universal,  they 
must  have  happened  ages  ago  before  the  crea- 
tion of  man  ;  for  it  would  have  been  impossible, 
constituted  as  man  is,  for  him  to  have  existed  dur- 
ing the  phenomenon. 

Although  it  can  be  demonstrated  that  the  world 
is  not  eternal,  yet  a  long  period  must  have  elapsed 
before  man  could  have  existed,  constituted  as  he 
now  is ;  therefore,  we  infer,  that  the  six  days  of 
creation  must  have  been  periods  of  indefinite 
duration,  notwithstanding  we  acknowledge  the 
Mosaic  account  to  be  correct,  viz.  "  In  the  be- 
ginning, God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth," 
and  established  laws  for  the  government  thereof, 
under  His  direction.  For  to  suppose  a  law, 
would  be  to  suppose  a  law-giver,  and  an  executor, 
otherwise,  the  law  is  a  nullity.  Matter  cannot 
contain  in  itself  a  law  and  an  executor.  Inert 
matter  can  have  no  design,  or  motive. 


The  Sea  amd  the  Atmosphere. 

The  ocean  and  the  atmosphere  have  undoubt- 
edly both  contributed  to  produce  changes  in  the 
surface  of  the  globe. 

Nearly  three  fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  globe 
is  assigned  to  the  water. 

Although  the  land  rises  considerably  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  yet  in  reality  it  is  but  slightly  re- 
moved above  the  level,  when  considered  as  it 
should  be  in  reference  to  the  radius  of  the  earth. 

The  superfices  of  the  Pacific  ocean  alone,  is 
estimated  at  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  the 
whole  dry  land. 

Dry  land  can  only  be  considered  as  so  much  of 
the  rough  surface  of  our  globe  as  may  happen 
for  the  time  being  to  be  above  the  water,  beneath 
which  it  may  disappear  as  it  has  done  at  various 
times. 

The  mean  depth  of  the  ocean  has  been  vari- 
ously estimated  at  between  two  and  three  miles, 

The  mean  height  of  the  dry  land  above  the 
ocean  level  does  not  exceed  two  miles. 


95 

Therefore,  assuming  two  miles  for  the  mean 
depth  of  the  ocean,  the  water  occupying  three 
fourths  of  the  earth's  surface,  the  present  dry  land 
might  be  distributed  over  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  globe  might  present  a 
mass  of  water.  With  this  at  command,  every  va- 
riety of  the  superficial  distribution  of  land  and 
water  may  be  imagined,  consequently  every  vari- 
ety of  organic  life,  each  suited  to  the  various  sit- 
uations and  climates  under  which  it  would  be 
placed. 

Masses  of  salt  water  are  sometimes  included  in 
the  dry  land,  which  have  been  called  Caspians, 
from  the  Caspian  sea,  the  largest  body  of  internal 
salt  water.  These  have  no  visible  communica- 
tion with  the  ocean. 

No  measurement  by  soundings  has  exceeded 
one  mile  and  a  quarter. 

The  ocean  has  not  always  occupied  its  present 
bed*  for  rocks  almost  entirely  composed  of  the 
shells  or  remains  of  marine  animals  are  found  in 
almost  every  country  that  has  been  explored  ;  and 
on  the  summits  of  high  mountains,  some  of  which 
rise  more  than  two  miles  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

The  whole  body  of  the  ocean  is  composed  of 
salt  water,  which  does  not  vary  materially  in  com- 
position. 

The  gravity  and  pressure  of  the  sea  are  of  great 
consequence  in  accounting  for  many  geological 
phenomena  ;  for  as  the  pressure  increases  with 
the  depth,  effects,  which  would  be  possible  at  one 
depth,  would  be  impossible  at  another.  Thus, 


96 

from  experiment,  it  is  found,  that  carbonate  of 
lime  may  be  fused  by  heat,  without  the  loss  of  its 
carbonic  acid,  if  subjected  to  great  pressure,  snch 
as  exists  at  the  bottom  of  the  deep  ocean. 

The  compressibility  of  water  is  found  to  be  51. 
3,  million ths  of  its  volume  for  a  pressure  equal 
to  one  atmosphere,  it  follows  then,  that  at  great 
depths  and  beneath  a  great  pressure  of  the  ocean, 
a  given  quantity  of  water  will  occupy  less  space 
than  on  the  surface,  and  will  consequently  by  this, 
circumstance  alone,  have  its  specific  gravity  great- 
ly increased. 

In  former  periods^  the  waters  of  the  ocean  cov- 
ered the  summits  of  some  of  the  highest  moun^ 
tains  ;  we  are  thus  irresistibly  compelled  to  ad- 
mit, either  that  the  sea  has  retired  and  sunk  far 
below  its  former  level,  or  that  some  power  ope- 
rating from  beneath  has  lifted  up  the  islands  and 
continents,  with  their  hills  and  mountains,  to  their 
present  elevation  above  the  ocean. 

The  atmosphere  which  surrounds  the  earth  and 
is  at  the  height  of  at  least  forty  five  miles,  does 
not  concern  the  Geologist  so  much  as  the  Natu- 
ral philosopher,  in  his  investigations,  except  as  an 
agent  in  wearing  down  the  solid  surface  of  mod- 
erate elevations,  as  well  as  rocks,  hills  and  moun- 
tains, by  the  precipitation  of  rain,  and  by  change 
of  temperature.  The  wearing  down  of  moun- 
tains by  rain,  and  decomposition  of  the  mineral 
substances  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  afford 
frequent  opportunities  for  observing  that  the  min- 
eral substances  of  which  they  are  composed  are 
of  different  kinds. 


97 

The  atmosphere  has  undoubtedly  undergone 
great  changes  since  the  creation.  The  revolu- 
tions and  changes  to  which  the  earth  was  subject- 
ed in  the  first  epochs  of  creation  might  have 
been  designed  to  prepare  the  atmosphere  by  nice- 
ly balancing  its  two  constituents,  oxygen  and  ni- 
trogen, so  as  to  render  it  fit  for  the  free  and  salu- 
tary respiration  of  animals. 

If  the  globe  was  an  ignited  fluid  mass,  in  the  be- 
ginning, then  all  the  aqueous  particles  that  form 
the  ocean,  and  all  the  more  volatile  mineral  sub- 
stances would  have  existed  in  the  form  of  vapour, 
and  would  have  constituted  a  dense,  or  nebulous 
medium  of  vast  extent,  similar  to  the  atmosphere 
of  a  comet.  By  refrigeration,  the  volatile  mine- 
ral matter  would  become  concrete,  and  the  aque- 
ous particles  precipitated,  until  the  constitution  of 
the  atmosphere  became  fitted  for  the  support  of 
animal  life.  And  it  is  probable,  that  the  animals 
of  the  earliest  creation  were  constituted  to  breathe 
a  denser  atmosphere  than  the  present  one.  Such 
an  atmosphere  would,  in  a  considerable  degree, 
equalize  the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth,  and 
the  excess  of  moisture  and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
would  also  be  favorable  to  the  rapid  develope- 
ment  of  vegetable  organization. 
v*-  The  earth  has  evidently  been  gradually  cooling 
for  ages  ;  some  have  supposed  that  the  time  would 
arrive  when  it  would  be  actually  and  universally 
frozen,  that  is,  when  it  ceases  to  radiate  heat. 
This  supposition  is  unchemical,  for  it  can  radiate 
no  longer  than  until  there  is  an  equilibrium  be- 
tween the  atmosphere  and  the  interior  of  the 


98 

earth.  This  equilibrium  may  be  restored  without 
effecting  very  materially  the  present  temperature 
of  the  surface. 


On  the  Formation  of  Soils. 

Soil,  on  which  vegetation  of  different  kinds 
flourishes,  is  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
harder  strata,  and  of  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances occasionally  mixed  with  it. 

A  due  proportion  of  the  different  ingredients  is 
requisite  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

The  disintegration  of  mountains  and  the  filling 
up  of  valleys  are  designed  by  the  great  Author  of 
Nature,  for  the  support  of  the  vegetable  tribes, 
and  these,  in  their  turn,  for  the  support  of  animals, 
who,  in  their  turn,  shall  administer  to  the  support 
of  man. 

The  quality  of  the  soil  depends  on  the  nature 
of  the  rocks  from  which  it  is  formed  ;  those  rocks 


99 


which  decompose  the  most  readily  form  the  most 
fertile  soils. 

Granite  and  siliceous  rocks  form  sandy  soils. 
Argillaceous  rocks  form  stiff  clay  soils,  and  cal- 
careous rocks,  when  mixed,  with  clay  form  marl, 
but  when  not  covered  by  other  strata,  they  form 
a  transient  but  nutritious  soil. 

For  a  productive  soil,  the  due  intermixture  of 
the  three  earths,  lime,  sand  and  clay  is  necessary. 
The  oxide  of  iron  appears  also  requisite. 

Different  vegetables  require  different  admix- 
tures of  earth.  They  require  it,  first,  because  it 
is  necessary  for  their  growth  that  the  soil  should 
be  sufficiently  stiff  and  deep  to  keep  them  firm  in 
their  places  ;  secondly,  that  it  should  not  be  too 
stiff  to  prohibit  the  expansion  and  growth  of 
their  roots  ;  and,  lastly,  that  it  should  supply  them 
with  a  constant  quantity  of  water,  in  due  propor- 
tions. 

By  imitating  nature,  by  observing  the  soils  in 
which  uncultivated  plants  grow  luxuriantly,  we 
may  obtain  advantageous  results,  and  acquire 
certain  fixed  principles  to  guide  us  in  our  attempts 
to  bring  barren  soils  into  a  state  of  profitable  cul- 
tivation. 

When  rocks  contain  silex,  clay  and  lime,  they 
form  soils  whose  fertility  may  be  considered  per- 
manent. 

The  small  portion  of  earths  and  alkalies  which 
plants  contain,  are,  in  all  probability,  formed  from 
a  process  of  vegetation,  from  more  simple  elements 
as  the  earths  and  alkalies  are  compound  sub- 
stances. 


100 

The  principal  elements  found  in  plants  are, 
hydrogen,  carbon  and  oxygen.  Hydrogen  and 
oxygen  exist  in  the  proportion  to  form  water. 
By  volume  2,  hydrogen  1 ,  oxygen  ;  by  weight,  88. 
9,  oxygen,  11.1,  hydrogen  nearly. 

Water  and  the  atmosphere  contain  in  them- 
selves, or  in  solution,  all  the  elements  for  the 
support  and  growth  of  vegetables.  But  most 
soils  are  either  too  wet,  or  too  dry,  too  loose,  or 
too  adhesive,  to  admit  plants  to  extract  these 
elements,  in  the  proportions  necessary  to  their 
growth. 

Manures,  by  furnishing  in  great  abundance  the 
Hydrogen,  Carbon  and  Nitrogen,  which  plants 
require,  supply  the  deficiency. 

In  proportion  as  soils  possess  a  due  degree  of 
tenacity,  and  power  of  retaining  and  absorbing 
heat  and  moisture,  the  necessity  for  a  supply  of 
manure  is  diminished  ;  and  in  some  instances  the 
earths  are  so  combined  as  to  render  the  applica- 
tion of  manure  unnecessary. 

In  general  the  character  of  a  soil  depends  more 
upon  the  nature  and  amount  of  vegetable  and 
animal  matter  it  contains,  than  upon  the  nature 
of  its  other  ingredients. 

Alluvial  meadows  have  always  been  celebrated 
for  their  fertility,  because  they  are  a  deposite  from 
water,  of  the  finest  and  richest  portion  of  every 
soil  over  which  the  waters  have  passed. 

Diluvium  is  the  most  unfriendly  to  fertility,  and 
requires  abundant  manuring. 

New  red  sand  stone  is  easily  disintegrated,  and 
affords  a  good  soil  for  some  kind  of  vegetables, 


101 

especially  that  part  denominated  red  marl ;  this 
forms  an  excellent  soil  for  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
beans,  &c.  It  is  also  peculiarly  well  adapted  for 
fruit. 

Argillaceous  slate  and  greywacke  afford  by 
decomposition  a  black,  or  dark  colored  soil,  this 
though  cold,  is  capable  of  being  made  very  fertile 
and  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  onions  and 
many  other  garden  vegetables. 

Oxide  of  iron  when  not  in  too  great  proportion, 
when  mixed  with  other  ingredients,  affords  a  pro- 
ductive soil. 

Limestone,  when  decomposed,  affords  a  good 
soil. 

Talcose  and  Mica  slate  do  not  afford  a  produc- 
tive soil  by  decomposition. 

Gneiss  affords  a  strong  productive  soil,  espec- 
ially when  the  rock  contains  iron. 

Greenstone  by  decomposition  affords  a  fertile 
soil,  probably,  in  a  great  measure,  owing  to  the 
iron. 

Granite  and  Sienite  afford  a  superior  soil,  it  is 
generally  strong  and  retentive  of  moisture.  It  is 
usually  of  a  dark  color  and  fine  texture. 

Lime  is  the  only  earth,  either  carbonate  or  sul- 
phate, that  has  been  generally  used  to  mix  with 
soils. 

It  is  considered  by  agriculturists  in  general, 
as  a  manure,  but  its  operation  as  such  is  very  im- 
perfectly understood.  Burnt  lime,  when  caustic, 
destroys  undecomposed  vegetable  matter,  and  re- 
duces it  to  mould ;  so  far  its  use  is  intelligible. 
It  combines,  also,  with  vegetable  and  mineral 
i2 


102 

acids  in  the  soil  which  might  be  injurious  to  vege- 
tation ;  here  its  operation  is  likewise  intelligible  ; 
but  if  we  assert,  that  when  burnt  lime  has  absorded 
carbonic  acid  and  becomes  mild,  it  gives  out  its 
carbon  again  to  roots  of  plants,  we  assume  a  fact, 
which  we  have  neither  experiments  nor  analogies 
to  support.  The  utility  of  lime  in  decomposing 
vegetable  matter  and  neutralizing  acids  is  obvious, 
but  its  other  uses  are  not  so  obvious ;  except  we 
admit  that  it  acts  mechanically  on  the  soil,  and 
renders  the  clay,  or  sand  with  which  it  is  inter- 
mixed, better  adapted  to  the  proper  expansion  of 
the  ro'ots,  and  more  disposed  to  modify  the  power 
of  retaining,  or  absorbing  the  requisite  degree  of 
heat  and  moisture,  which  particular  ingredients 
may  demand. 

The  temperature  requisite  for  the  growth  of 
plants  is  influenced  by  the  power  of  different  soils 
to  absorb  and  retain  heat  from  the  solar  rays, 
which  depends  much  upon  the  moisture  and  tenac- 
ity of  the  soil.  Rich  or  clayey  soils  absorb  heat 
slowly,  and  part  with  it  again  more  reluctantly 
than  the  calcareous  soils,  owing  to  the  greater 
quantity  of  moisture  in  the  clay,  which  is  an  im- 
perfect conductor  of  heat.  Hence  the  vegetation 
of  grasses  in  the  spring  is  much  sooner  on  lime- 
stone and  sandy  soils,  if  not  extremely  barren, 
than  on  clayey,  or  deep  rich  soils  ;  and  the  differ- 
ence is  more  than  reversed  in  the  autumn. 

It  is  important  that  every  person  intending  to 
purchase  a  farm,  should  understand  the  Geological 
formations  in  and  around  it.  In  this  way,  only, 
he  can  form  a  correct  judgment  of  the  produc- 


103 

tiveness  of  the  soil ;  and  save  much  expense  and 
disappointment,  to  which  those  who  are  ignorant 
of  the  principles  of  Geology  are  continually  liable. 
He  can  ascertain  pretty  accurately,  the  quantity 
of  labor  and  money  that  will  be  necessary  to  be 
expended  to  bring  his  farm  into  successful  culti- 
vation, and  the  vegetables  that  are  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  soil,  which  will  yield  a  luxuriant 
produce. 


Of  Organic  Remains. 

Organic  remains  are  those  remains  of  animals 
or  vegetables  found  imbedded  in  strata  of  differ- 
ent ages.  In  general  they  differ  from  animals  and 
vegetables  now  existing. 

They  are  generally  colored  by  the  strata  in 
which  they  are  imbedded. 

Some  animal  remains  contain  the  most  delicate 
fibres  perfect  and  unbroken,  which  seems  to  prove 
that  the  mineral  matter  in  which  they  are  depos- 


104 

ited  was  in  a  finely  comminuted  state,  in  a  tran- 
quil sea.  In  some  instances,  the  most  delicate 
shells  are  regularly  arranged,  so  that  their  genera 
are  readily  determined.  While  in  others,  they 
are  broken  and  confused.  These  facts  are  of 
immense  geological  importance,  as  they  mark  in 
a  striking  manner,  the  convulsions  which  the 
globe  has  undergone  at  different  periods. 

Some  of  the  more  delicately  constructed  ani- 
mals, and  even  fish  whose  bodies  are  found  entire, 
imbedded  in  stone,  appear  to  have  been  instantan- 
eously destroyed  and 'enveloped  in  the  mineral 
matter  before  the  putrefactive  process  had  com- 
menced. The  petrifaction  must,  in  some  instan- 
ces, immediately  have  commenced  after  death. 

All  animals  are  distributed  according  to  their 
organization,  into  four  grand  divisions :  Verte- 
brated,  Moluscous,  Articulated  and  Radiated. 

1.  Vertebrated,  having  a  skull  containing  the 
brain,  and  a  spine  or  back  bone,  containing  the 
principal  trunk  of  the  nervous  system,  commonly 
called  the  spinal  marrow.     This  division  compris- 
es the  Mammalia,  or  such  as  suckle  their  young, 
and  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes ;  the  latter  are  called 
oviparous  animals,  such  as  produce  their  young 
from  an  egg.     Viviparous,  bring  forth  their  young 
alive. 

2.  Moluscous,  animals  which  have  no  internal 
skeleton,  the  muscles  are  attached  to  the  skin, 
which,  in  many  species,  is  covered  with  a  shell. 
The  nervous  system  and  viscera  are  composed  of 
detached  masses,  united  by  nervous  filaments, 
they  possess  only  the  sense  of  feeling,  taste  and 


105 

sight,  but  some  want  the  latter.  They  have  a 
complete  system  of  circulation,  and  particular  or- 
gans for  respiration.  Animals  with  bivalve,  uni- 
valve and  chambered  shells,  are  of  this  division, 
such  as  oysters,  muscles,  nautulus,  &c.;  some  are 
destitute  of  a  shell. 

3.  Articulated.     In  this  division   are  compre- 
hended crustaceous  animals   and   insects  ;  their 
nervous  system  consists  of  two  long  chords,  rang- 
ing along  the  body,  and  swelling  out  in  different 
parts  into  ganglions  and  knots.     Worms,  having 
their  bodies  composed  of  rings  are  called  anneli- 
des;  they  have  red  blood;  some  species  inhabit 
a  calcareous  tube,  supposed  to  be  formed  by  ex- 
udation. 

4.  Radiated,  the  animals  which  were  formerly 
called  zoophytes,  or  animal  plants,  as  the  coral- 
lines which  were  long  mistaken  for  marine  vege- 
tables.    The  organ  of  sense  and  motion  are  dis- 
posed circularly,  around  a  centre,  or  axis ;  des- 
titute  of  nervous   system,    circulation    obscure. 
Many  have  no  power  of  locomotion,  as  madre- 
pores and  encrinites,  others  as  echinus,  possess 
a  very  complex  organization,  and  the  power  of 
moving  from  place  to  place  on  their  spines,  which 
serve  as  feet. 

The  radiated  animals  have  left  their  remains 
disposed  in  the  transition  strata ;  and  they  afford 
us  the  most  ancient  history  of  animated  nature ; 
they  are  likewise  found  in  some  of  the  upper  se- 
ries of  limestone. 

The  pentacrinus  makes  its  first  distinct  appear- 
ance in  the  lias. 


106 

Articulated  animals,  some  of  the  annelides  in- 
habiting tubes  are  found  in  the  upper  seconda- 
ry and  tertiary  strata,  crustaceous  animals,  crab; 
&c.,  are  found  in  the  upper  secondary  and  ter- 
tiary strata ;  they  are  more  common  in  chalk  and 
in  beds  of  clay  covering  chalk.  The  Trilobite  is 
found  in  slate,  and  may  be  considered  as  one  of 
the  oldest  inhabitants  of  the  globe,  cotemporan- 
eous  with  radiated  animals.  It  had  three  longi- 
tudinal lobes,  with  transverse  fins,  something  like 
those  under  the  tail  of  a  lobster.  The  genus  is 
supposed  to  be  extinct. 

Articulated  animals  have  supplied  the  smallest 
number  of  organic  remains. 

Moluscous  animals.  Bivalve  shells  occur  in 
transition  limestone,  but  rarely ;  some  chambered 
shells  are  also  found  in  transition  limestone ;  bi- 
valves and  univalves  are  abundant  in  the  lower 
secondary  series.  Also  chambered  shells,  such 
as  nautilites  and  ammonites  abound  in  the  sec- 
ondary and  chalk  formation  ;  but  no  ammonites 
are  found  in  the  strata  above  chalk. 

Top  shaped  spiral  univalve  shells  first  appear 
in  the  lower  secondary  series,  but  become  more 
numerous  in  the  upper. 

In  the  tertiary  strata,  the  species  of  univalve 
shells  greatly  exceed  the  bivalve.  The  organic 
remains  of  shells  in  the  tertiary  strata  bear  a 
nearer  resemblance  to  moluscous  animals  living 
in  our  present  seas,  than  those  found  in  more  an- 
cient strata. 

Vertebrate  A  Animals,  are  arranged  under  four 
classes.  Fishes,  reptiles,  birds  and  mammiferous 


107 

animals.  Remains  of  fishes  are  rare  in  transition 
rocks  ;  but  are  found  in  abundance  in  the  lower 
secondary  strata.  In  some  instances  the  entire 
bodies  are  well  preserved,  also  the  bones,  scales, 
palates  and  vertebrae  are  found  in  the  upper  sec- 
ondary and  tertiary  strata. 

In  the  lower  secondary  are  found  entire  skele- 
tons of  animals  belonging  to  the  Saurian  or  liz- 
ard tribe>  and  are  very  abundant  in  an  argilla- 
ceous limestone  called  lias,  and  in  the  beds  of 
clay  that  are  over  it.  Many  of  these  are  differ- 
ent from  any  known  genera  now  existing,  and 
were  inhabitants  of  the  ocean,  being  furnished 
with  paddles  instead  of  feet,  such  as  the  Ichthy- 
osaurus and  Plesiosaurus.  Other  saurian  animals 
having  feet,  allied  to  the  present  genera  of  lizards 
and  crocodiles,  they  were  evidently  amphibious ; 
these  are  found  between  the  lias  and  chalk.  The 
Iguanodon  is  found  in  this  series  ;  it  was  of  the 
Saurian  tribe  and  gigantic  size,  being  eighty  feet 
in  length  ;  and  the  thickness  of  the  body  equaling 
that  of  the  elephant.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
herbivorous. 

The  remains  of  birds  are  rare  in  any  of  the 
strata. 

Animals  of  the  Mammalia  class  occur  in  the 
tertiary  strata,  and  in  beds  of  gravel  and  clay. 
Cetaceous  animals  allied  to  the  Whale  and  Seal? 
occasionally  occur  in  the  tertiary  strata.  The 
bones  of  mammiferous  land  quadrupeds  occur  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  tertiary  strata ;  they  are 
more  frequently  found  in  beds  of  clay  and  gravel. 
Seventy  different  species  of  land  quadrupeds  ac* 


108 

cording  to  Cuvier,  have  been  found  in  the  tertiary 
strata  near  Paris.  Nearly  forty  of  these  are  of 
species  no  longer  existing,  and  several  belong  to 
extinct  genera. 

Neither  the  bones  of  man  or  monkeys  have 
been  found  with  those  of  the  more  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  the  globe. 

The  animal  remains  found  in  transition  are  al- 
most exclusively  marine,  hence  we  could  not  have 
inferred  that  any  portion  of  the  globe  was  dry 
land,  when  these  deposites  were  made.  In  some 
of  the  slate  rocks  however,  a  few  remains  of  ter- 
restial  plants  nearly  allied  to  ferns  are  found, 
which  indicate  the  existence  of  some  tracts  of  dry 
land,  or  islands  at  that  remote  period. 

As  we  ascend  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
strata,  a  progression  from  imperfect  to  more  per- 
fect forms  of  vegetables,  is  evident.  In  transition 
slate  are  found  algae,  or  sea  weed,  and  a  few  fronds 
or  leaves  of  ferns. 

Coal  measures  abound  in  vegetable  remains. 
As  Ferns,  Equisetae,  Lycopodiae,  Palms  and  canes 
or  reeds. 

In  the  secondary  class  are  found  an  higher 
species  of  ferns  and  Lycopodige,  and  the  Coniferae 
and  Cycodeae. 

In  the  tertiary  beds  are  found  pi  ants  of  an  high- 
er order  still,  which  are  rarely  if  ever  found  in 
the  secondary  veins,  such  as  the  perfect  plants, 
trees,  &c. 

It  appears  that  the  devastating  effects  accom- 
panying the  vast  changes  which  this  planet  has 
undergone,  were  so  extensive,  that  not  only  some 


109 

species  of  quadrupeds  were  entirely  removed,  of 
some  genera,  such  as  the  elephant,  rhinoceros 
and  hippopotamus,  of  which  other  species  still 
remain ;  but  that  other  genera,  such  as  Mastodon, 
Palseotherium  and  Anoplotherium  were  complete- 
ly annihilated. 

These  changes  in  the  state  of  the  plants,  and 
this  partial  destruction  of  quadrupeds,  appear  to 
have  been  succeeded  by  the  creation  of  man,  and 
of  such  quadrupeds  and  other  animals  as  were  fit 
inhabitants  of  the  earth  after  its  last  change.  But 
man  did  not  retain  his  dominion  uninterrupted 
long.  The  scriptures  teach  us  that  a  flood  of 
waters  was  brought  upon  the  earth  which  pre- 
vailed on  it  for  an  hundred  and  fifty  days,  and  by 
which  the  whole  race  was  nearly  destroyed.  The 
Mosaic  account  of  this  deluge  has,  however,  been 
doubted,  from  the  total  absence  of  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  man.  But  a  reference  will  shew,  that 
no  circumstances  are  stated  in  that  account  which 
will  authorize  the  supposition,  that  the  deluge  was 
accompanied  with  such  subversive  violence,  as 
would  bury  its  victims  in  those  situations  which 
would  dispose  to  the  mineralization  and  conse- 
quent preservation  of  their  remains. 

The  assumption  of  successive  creations  with 
accordant  changes  in  the,  state  of  the  earth,  does 
not  agree  literally,  with  the  Mosaic  account  of 
creation,  as  commonly  received.  The  facts,  holv- 
ever,  appear  to  be  as  they  are  stated,  and  cannot 
be  controverted  on  philosophical  and  geological 
principles.  They  are  in  perfect  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  nature,  which*  have  ever  been  under 


110 

the  guidance  of  Infinite  Wisdom.  It  must,  there- 
fore be,  that  we  have  misinterpreted,  or  misun- 
derstood the  sacred  history.  Or,  may  not  the 
days  of  creation  be  considered  as  epochs  of  indefi- 
nite duration  ?  As  the  Hebrew  word  for  day  is  of- 
ten so  translated  in  the  Scriptures. 

This  system  of  successive  creations  fitted  to 
the  existing  state  of  the  planet,  appears  not  only 
not  to  derogate  from  the  wisdom  and  power  of 
the  Almighty,  but  to  be  perfectly  in  accordance 
with  the  agency  of  Providence,  as  taught  by  the 
Author  of  our  religion.  The  world  is  seen  in  its 
formation  and  continuance,  constantly  under  the 
providence  of  Almighty  God,  without  whose 
knowledge,  not  a  sparrow  falls  to  the  ground. 

Under  these  impressions  we  view  the  results  of 
these  several  changes  and  creations,  as  manifest- 
ing the  prescience,  power  and  benevolence  of  our 
Great  Creator.  The  general  form  of  the  earth's 
surface,  varied  by  the  distribution  of  hills  and  val- 
leys, and  of  land  and  water  ;  the  prodigious  accu- 
mulation of  coal  derived  from  vegetables  of  a  for- 
mer creation,  and  the  accompanying  slates  and 
schists  ;  the  useful,  durable  and  often  beautiful, 
encrinitical  and  shelly  limestones  ;  the  immense 
formations  of  chalk  and  flints,  and  the  various 
series  of  clays ;  all  evince  a  careful  providence 
in  the  wants  of  man.  The  several  breaks  and 
faults  in  the  stratified  masses,  and  the  various  in- 
clinations of  the  different  strata,  as  well  as  the 
vast  abruptions  by  which  these  various  substances 
are  brought  to  the  hand  of  man,  may  be  regarded 
as  most  beneficent  provisions  resulting  from  ca- 


Ill 

tastrophes  too  vast  and  tremendous  for  human  in- 
tellect to  comprehend. 

From  these  several  creations,  it  appears  that 
beings  have  proceeded,  gradually  increasing  in 
superiority  from  testaceous  animals  to  reptiles, 
fish,  marine  and  fresh  water  animals,  quadrupeds, 
and  lastly,  man,  who,  in  his  turn,  is  destined,  with 
the  earth  he  inhabits,  to  pass  away,  and  be  suc- 
ceeded by  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth. 


VOCABULARY, 

Or  Explanation  of  Terms  used  in  Geology. 


A. 

•Abbreviated,  shortened. 

•Abdominal,  relating  to  the  cavity 
of  the  belly. 

Abrupt,  terminating  suddenly. 

Acaulis,  applied  to  vegetable  fos- 
sil remains,  destitute  of  stems. 

Acephalous, without  a  head,aterm 
applied  to  those  shell  fish  who 
are  destitute  of  a  head,  as  the 
oysters  &c. 

dicotyledonous,  plants  destitute 
of  seed  lobes,  and  which  put 
forth  no  seminal  or  seed  leaves. 

•Accessory,  additional. 

Accuminate,  abruptly  sharp 
pointed. 

•Acute,  sharp  pointed. 

•Acute  angle,  an  angle  less  than 
ninety  degrees. 

•Acute  Octohedron,  where  the 
base  of  the  plane  is  shorter 
than  the  two  sides. 

•Acute  Rhomboid,  where  the  three 
planes  meet  at  the  apex,  under 
an  acute  angle. 

•Adamantine  Spar,  crystallized 
alumine. 

•Adhesive,  sticking,  tenacious. 

•Adherent,  fixed  to  solid  bodies. 

Adnate,  growing  firmly  together. 

Aiguilles,  needle  shaped  strata, 
or  deposites. 

Alcyonia,  zoophytes  nearly  al- 
lied to  sponges,  the  habitation 
of  polypi. 
JJ 


•Alluvial,  or  alluvium,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  substances  brought 
down  by  rains,  and  deposited 
from  fresh  water. 

Alveolate,  having  large  cells. 

Alternations,  reciprocal  depos- 
ites, as  layers  of  quartz  and  An- 
thracite, in  coal  beds. 

Alumine,  pure  clay,  the  base  of 
alum. 

Ammonites,  so  named  from  Ju- 
piter Ammon,  a  univalve  spiral 
shell,  the  whorls,  or  turns  are 
all  distinct,  and  in  the  same 
plane,  and  the  cells  are  very 
small  ;  variety  of  species;  an 
extinct  genus. 

Amphibole,  hornblende. 

Amphitrite,  a  tubular  elongated, 
cylindrical  shell,  attenuated  at 
the  base. 

Amphibious,  living  both  on  the 
land  and  in  the  water. 

Amygdaloid,  rocks  containing 
kernel  shaped  cavities  filled 
with  mineral  matter  of  a  differ- 
ent kind. 

Ananchytes,  an  helmet  shaped 
echinus. 

Angle  of  Inclination,  the  angle 
which  strata  make  with  the 
horizon. 

Anomites,  a  term  applied  to  cer- 
tain fossil  shells,  with  two 
valves,  where  one  valve  is  per- 
forated. 


114 


•Anhydrous,  destitute  of  water,  a  Jlreola,  or  posterior  slope,  when 


term  applied  to  rocks  contain- 
ing no  water. 

Jlngiosp ermes,  plants  whose 
seeds  are  enclosed,  or  covered. 

•Angular,  forming  angles. 

•Anoplotherium,  an  extraordinary 
fossil  quadruped  found  in  the 
Paris  gypsum,  it  was  destitute 
of  canine  teeth. 

•Annual,  continuing  butone  j'ear. 

•Annular,  in  the  form  of  a  ring. 

•Annuli,  applied  to  the  muscular 
fibres  which  surround  the  bod- 
ies of  some  animals  like  rings. 

Anomalous  i  irregular,  or  whatev- 
er forms  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule. 

•Antennce,  organs  of  touch,  situa- 
ted near  the  mouth  of  insects, 
having  many  joints. 

•Anthracite,  coal  which  burns 
without  flame  or  smoke. 

•Anticlinal  line,  a  line  traced  on 
the  surface  of  a  country  to  shew 


where  the  strata  dip  in  oppo- 
site directions. 

•Antimony,  one  of  the  brittle  met- 
als. 

•Apetalous,  without  petals. 

Apex,  the  top,  or  summit. 

•Apopbysis,    an    excrescence, 
projection. 

Oppressed,  closely  pressed, 

•Approximate,  approaching  each 
other. 

•Apterous,  without  wings. 

-Aqua  Marine,  the  Beryl, 

Aquatic,  living  in  the  water. 

•.Arborescent,  resembling  a  shrub. 

•Argil,  clay. 

•Argillaceous,  containing  a  large 
portion  of  clay. 

Argillite,  clay  slate,  roof  slate, 
cyphering  slate. 

•Area,  or  anterior  slope,  a  term 
applied  to  shells,  that  on  which 
the  ligament  is  placed. 


applied  to  a  shell  the  side  of 
the  back  opposite  to  the  liga- 
ment. 

•Arenaceous,  of  a  sandy  consis- 
tence. 

•Arched  Strata,  curved,  bowed, 

•Artesian  [Veils,  wells  of  water 
made  by  boring  into  strata. 

Articulated,  jointed,  or  one  part 
growing  on  another. 

Jlsphaltum,  mineral  pitch. 

•Attenuated,  tapering  to  a  point, 
or  edge,  thin. 

Jlugite,  a  black  mineral  resem- 
bling in  appearance  hornblende 
but  differs  in  crystallization. 

Jluriferous,  applied  to  a  rock  con- 
taining gold. 

B. 

Baculile,  a  fossil  straight  cham- 
bered shell,  the  chambers  sep- 
arated bv  sinuous  septce. 

Bagshot  $and,  marine  sand. 

Balkstone,  an  impure   stratified 


Limestone. 

Basalt,  a  species  of  Trap  rock 
supposed  to  be  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin. It  is  unoonformable. 

Basanite,  a  species  of  flinty  slate. 

Beaks,  the  summits  of  bivalve 
shells. 

Belemnites,  a  conical  or  fusiform 
stone,  of  brown  radiating  spar, 
generally  terminating  at  the 
small  end  in  a  point ;  and  hav- 
ing at  the  lar^e  end  a  conical 
cavity,  naturally  containing  a 
testaceous  body,  divided  into 
chambers  by  plain  concave 
septa3  and  pierced  by  a  siyhun- 
cle. 

Binder  clunch,  argillaceous  beds 
in  coal  strata. 

Bitter  Spar,  Rhomb  spar. 

Bitumen,  an  inflammable  mine- 
ral substance  composed  of  car-? 
bon  and  hydrogen. 


115 


Bituminous,  partaking  of  the  na- 
ture of  bitumen. 

Bivalve,  two  valves,  as  the  clam 
and  oyster. 

Black  W  addt  an  ore  of  manga- 
nese. 

Bladed,  Resembling  the  blade  of 
a  knife. 

Blende,  sulphuret  of  zinc. 

Blue  John,  Fluate  of  lime. 

Botryoidal,  a  mineral  presenting 
an  aggregate  of  sections  of  nu- 
merous small  globules,  like  a 
bunch  of  grapes,  as  some  spe- 
cies of  chalcedony. 

Breccia,  angular  fragments  of 
different  rocks  cemented  to- 
gether. 

Bucardium,  a  univalve  shell,  the 
animal  puts  out  a  triangular 
body  formed  of  two  pipes,  or 
tubes,  seperated  and  flat,  but 
which  becomes  round  as  the 
water  enters  by  the  lower  tube, 
and  goes  out  at  the  upper  one. 
These  tubes  are  surrounded 
with  hairs. 

Buccinum,  a  univalve  shell,  the 
animal  has  a  head  with  two 
eyes,  and  a  trunk  resembling 
the  trunk  of  an  elephant ;  with 
this  trunk  it  seizes  its  food.  It 
crawls  upon  a  fleshy  foot,  near 
the  end  of  which  is  an  horny 
substance,  called  an  operculum 
that  serves  as  a  door  to  close 
the  shell,  when  the  animal 
withdraws  into  it. 

Calamites,  fossil  reeds. 

Calcareous,  belonging  to  lime. 

Carbon,  charcoal,  coal,  diamond. 

Carbonate  of  Lime .  Limestone. 

Carboniferous,  rocks  allied  to  the 
coal  formation. 

Calp,  an  argillaceous  ferruge- 
neous  limestone. 

Cawk,  sulphate  of  Barytes. 

Cellular,  full  of  pores,  or  round- 


ed cavities. 

Chert,  hornstone. 

Chlorite,  a  stone  nearly  allied  to 
talc,  of  a  greenish  color  and 
soapy  feel. 

Cleavage,  a  term  applied  to  those 
minerals  which  have  a  natural 
fracture,  and  which  cleave  in 
the  direction  of  that  fracture. 

Clinkstone,  an  imperfect  slato 
containing  hornblende,  which 
rings  like  metal,  when  struck 
with  a  hammer. 

Cols,  depressions  in  mountain 
ranges. 

Conchoidal,  resembling  a  shell. 

Conchology,  the  science  of  shells. 

Conglomerates,  large  fragments 
of  stone  whether  rounded  or 
angular,  and  imbedded  in  other 
minerals. 

Contemporaneous^  formed  at  the 
same  time. 

Contorted,  twisted. 

Coral,  and  coralline,  species  of 
limestone  formed  by  polypi. 

Corneous,  resembling  horn. 

Cornitiferous  Limestone,  a  spe- 
cies of  limestone  embracing 
hornstone. 

Cretaceous,  chalky. 

Crustacea,  a  genus  of  animals 
which  have  a  shell  like  a  Lob- 
ster, or  crab  &c. 

Cuneiform,  wedge  form. 

Curved  Strata,  where  the  Strata 
encircle  the  mountain  like  a 
mantle. 

D. 

Debris,  fragments. 

Degradation,  wearing  away. 

Dendritic,  assuming  the  form  of 
a  tree  or  shrub. 

Denudations,  strata  which  have 
been  laid  bare  by  some  foreign 
agent. 

Detritus,  rubbish. 

Diabase,  Greenstone, 


116 


Diallage,  crystallized  serpentine. 
Dicotyledonous,     those      plants 

which  have  seed  with  two  lobes 

as  the  bean. 
'Diluvium  or  Diluvion,  deposites 

made  by  Deluges. 
Disintegration,      crumbling    to 

pieces. 
Divergent,  spreading  out  from 

a  centre. 


der  threads. 

Fire  Damp,  carburetted  hydro- 
gen gas. 

Floetz,  a  term  applied  to  rocks 
which  lie  parallel. 

Fluor  Spar,  fluate  of  lime. 

Fluviatile,  inhabiting'*rivers,  or 
belonging  to  fresh  water. 

Foliated  or  Foliaceous,  like  thin 
leaves  laid  over  each  other. 


Dolerite,  a  mineral  composed  of  Formations,  strata  of  contempo- 

Feldspar  and  Augite. 
Dolomite  a  magnesian  limestone. 
Druses,  hollows  in  metallic  veins. 


E. 

Earthy  Composed  of  minute  parts 
resembling  dried  earth. 

Eboulements,  falling  down  of 
rocks,  &c. 

Echinite,  a  fossil  resembling  the 
echinus. 

Echinus,  Sea  Urchin,  which  is 
set  with  spines. 

Elevation,  height  above  the  hor- 
izon. 

Encrinite,  a  radiated  zoophyte, 
one  of  the  links  between  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdom. 

Equilateral,  sides  equal. 

Equivalents,  the  different  rocks 
which  occur  in  the  same  geo- 
logical position  in  distant  dis- 
tricts. 

Equivalve,  applied  to  shells, 
where  the  valves  are  equal  and 
similar. 

Escarpment,  steepest  side  of  a 
mountain. 

Eurite,  a  variety  of  granite  in 
which  feldspar  predominates. 

Exserted,  protruded. 
F. 

Facicular,  applied  to  a  species 
of  hornblende  where  the  crys- 
tals are  in  a  bundle. 

Falsiform,  sickle  shaped. 

Faults,  breaks  in  strata. 

Fibrous,  composed  of  long  slen- 


raneous  origin. 

Foss,  or  Fossa,  a  cavity. 

Fossil,  any  organic  remain. 

Fusiform,  spindle  shaped. 

Fuller's  Earth,  a  species  of  clay 
composed  of  silex,  alumine, 
magnesia}  lime  and  oxide  of 
iron. 

G. 

Gait,  a  species  of  marl. 

Geode,  a  hollow  ball  lined  with 
crystals. 

Geodiferous,  containing  geodes. 

Geology,  a  description  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  earth. 

Globular  structure,  consisting  of 
rounded  masses  either  detach- 
ed or  imbedded  in  rocks. 

Gneiss,  schistose, or  slaty  granite. 

Gorgonia,  the  sea  fan,  a  fixed 
dendroidal  polypifer  composed 
of  a  central  axis  and  a  cortici- 
form  crust. 

Granite,  a  rock  composed  of 
quartz,  feldspar  and  mica. 

Granular,  composed  of  grains. 

Green  sand,  arenaceous  beds  be- 
low chalk. 

Greenstone,  or  trap,  a  rock  con- 
taining a  large  portion  of  horn- 
blende. 

Greywacke,  a  rock  composed  of 
a  great  variety  of  minerals  and 
cemented  by  an  argillo— sili- 
ceous cement. 

Gypsum,  sulphate  of  Lime, 
Plaster  of  Paris. 


117 


H. 


Hading,  dipping  of  a  metallic 
vein. 

Helix,  shells  of  the  snail  family, 
terrestrial  and  aquatic. 

Hone,  whetstone  slate. 

Hornblende  Rock,  composed 
mostly  of  hornblende. 

Hornstone,  principally  composed 
of  silex  and  alumine. 

Hyaline,  transparent  like  glass. 
I  &  J. 

Jasper,  a  very  compact,  hard 
stone,  composed  mostly  of  alu- 
mine,  colored  by  iron. 

Icthyosaurus,  a  fossil  animal  hav- 
ing a  head  like  a  Dolphin, 
the  Saurian  genus. 

Jet,  a  substance  found  with  coal 
of  the  newest  formation,  and 
sometimes  with  lignite  and  am- 
ber. It  is  principally  carbon. 

Iguanodon,  a  fossil  herbivorous 
reptile.  It  is  considered  by 
Cuvier,  the  most  remarkable 
animal  yet  discovered.  It  was, 
in  a  living  state,  between  sixty 
and  seventy  feet  in  length. 

Imbedded  Rock,  a  bed  of  any 
rock  in  a  slate  mountain,  or  in 
any  other  stratum,  where  the 
stratum  is  different  from  the 
rock  enclosed. 

Incandescence,  in  the  state  of  a 
red  heat. 

Inclination  of  Strata  the  raised 
situation  of  strata  from  a  hori- 
zontal position. 

Intermediate  Rocks,  transition 
rocks. 

Intumescence, swe]Y\ng,  puffed [up. 

Inundations, 
or  Rivers. 

Isocronous,  in  the  same  time. 

Isothermal  Lines,  lines  of  equal 
temperature. 

K. 

Kaolin,  soft  earthy  feldspar 


for  porcelain. 
L. 

Lamella,  a  thin  layer,  or  scale. 

Lamellar  Structure,  slaty,  or  in 
layers. 

Lava,  a  volcanic  product  mostly 
composed  of  felJspar. 

Lenticular,  in  the  form  of  a  lens. 

Leucite,  a  volcanic  product  com- 
posed of  silex,  alumine  and 
potash. 

Lias,  argillaceous  limestone. 
Water  setting  lime. 

Lignite,  wood  coal. 

Lime,  one  of  the  earths  ;  its  me- 
tallic base  is  calcium, 
of  Limestone,  a  stone  composed  of 
carbonic  acid  and  lime. 

Line  of  Bearing,  a  line  drawn 
lengthwise  of  the  strata. 

Line  of  Dip,  aline  drawn  from 
the  outcrop  of  the  strata  down 
to  the  horizon. 

Lydian  Stone,  Touch  stone. 
Basanite. 

M. 


Madrepores,  stony  polypi,  with 
concentric  lamellae  in  the  form 
of  Stars  ;  in  a  living  state,  the 
stony  matter  is  covered  with  a 
skin  of  living  gelatinous  mat- 
ter, fringed  with  little  bunches 
of  tentaculse ;  these  are  the 
polypi  ;  the  skin  and  the  poly- 
pi contract  on  the  slightest 
touch.  Madrepores  are  some- 
times united  and  sometimes  de- 
tached; where  the  laminae  take 
a  serpentine  direction,  they  are 
called  Meandrina,  or  brain 
stone, 
overflowing  of  Seas  Madreporites,  stony  madrepores. 

Magnesia,  one  of  tbe  earths,  a- 
bounds  in  steatite  and  gives  to 
the  rock  a  soapy  feel,  and  the 
property  of  resisting  high  de- 
grees of  temperature, 
used  Magnesian  Limestone,  Dolo- 


118 


mite,   a  limestone  containing!     France  and  Germany, 
magnesia,  some  specimens  us-  Muscle-bind,  a  stratum  contain- 


in  j  fresh  water  muscles. 

N. 


ed  for  water  lime. 
(Mammillary    or    Mammiferous, 

covered   with  roundish  protu-'.Nacre,  like  pearl. 

berances.  \Nacrile,   a   mineral    resembling 

Jtfanganese,  one  of  the  metals,;     pearls. 

found  in  the  state  of  an  oxide.  \Nagil-flue>  a  term  used  in  Swit- 


tMarine,  relating  to  the  ocean. 

Marl,  a  composition  of  calcare- 
ous earth  and  clay. 

Jdarly  Clay,  London  clay. 

Mustoden,  the  Mammoth,  ac- 
cording to  Cuvier,  it  did  not 


zerland  for  sandstone  conglom- 
erate. 

Norfolk-crag,  the  most  recent  of 

the  tertiary  beds  in  England. 

O. 

Obsidian,  volcanic  glass,  resemb- 


exceed  the  elephant  in  height,      ling  green  bottle  glass. 
but  was  rather  longer  in  pro-Oolite,  a  calcareous  rock,  com- 
posed   of  globules  resembling 


the  roe  of  fish,  the  upper  of  the 


portion,  its  limbs  rather  thicker 

and  its  belly  smaller.     It  ap- 
pears to  have  had  a  trunk,  and;     secondary  strata. 

to  have  agreed  with  the  e\e- Orbicular,  globular. 

phant  in  having  tusks  ;  and  in  Organic,  a  term  applied  to  ani- 

the  whole  of  its  osteology  except      mal,  or  vegetable  remains. 

the  teeth  ;  which  differ  so  much 

in  every  respect,  as  to  forbic 

their  being  placed  in  the  same 

genus. 
Megalosawus,  an   enormous  fos- 

sil  lizard,   in    some    instances 

the  animal  must  have  attainec 

the  length  of  forty  feet,  and  to 

have  been  eight  feet  high. 
Mica.  Isinglass,  Muscovy  glass. 
•Millstone  grit,  a  sandstone  con- 
taining 

quartz 


angular     grains     oi 


Molasse,  soft  tertiary  sandstone 

Moluscous,  a  term  applied  to  sof 
animals  having  no  bones,  as 
the  oyster  and  clarn. 

Monitor,  a  large  fossil  animal 
belonging  to  the  Saurian  genus. 

Morains,  piles  of  stones  trans- 
ported .by  glaciers. 

Mountain    ^Limestone, 
transition  limestone. 


upper 


Mutchel  kalk,  a  series  of  calca- 
reous strata  between  the  red 
sand  stone  raid  red  marl,  in 


Osseous,  relating  to  bone. 
P. 

Pachydermata,\.\\\ck  skinned  animal*. 

Partings,  separation  of  strata. 

Pebbles,  stones  rounded  by  attrition. 

Pepperino,  volcanic  tufa. 

Petrifactions,  where  stone  has  taken 
the  place  and  form  of  organic  remains, 

Phonolite,  Clinkstone. 

Pitchstone,  semivitreoiis  stone  of  a 
blackish  green,  or  nearly  black  color, 
of  volcanic  origin. 

Piaster  stone,  gypsum. 

Plastic  clay,  clay  ol  which  brick*,  and 
pottery  are  made. 

Plesiosaurus,  from  the  Greek  p lesi os, 
approximate  to}  Sauros,  a  lizard,  a 
fossil  animal  of  the  Saurian  family, 
distinguished  by  its  peculiar  dentit- 
ion and  the  number  of  vertebrae  in 
the  back. 

Plumbago,  graphite,  black  lead,  car- 
buret of  iron. 

Porphyritic  Structure,  containing 
large  crystals  of  feldspar. 

Porphyry,  composed  principally  of 
feldspar. 

Potstone,  a  greenish  mineral  composed 
principally  of  silex,  magnesia,  iron 
and  a  In  mine;  less  uncteoua  than  ste- 
atite. 


119 


Pozzolana,  a  volcanic  substance,  con- 
sisting of  minute  particles  of  scoriee 
which  have  been  partially  decompos- 
ed. 

Primary  Rocks,  those  supposed  to 
bave  been  formed  before  animals  or 
vegetables. 

Protogene,  a  variety  of  granite  in 
which  talc  or  chlorite  supplies  the 
place  of  mica. 

Protrusion,  applied  to  rocks,  which 
have  been  ejected  through  others  by 
some  force  below. 

Psammite,  a  species  of  Greywacke. 

Pudding  Stone,  rounded  stones  ce- 
mented by  a  mineral  paste. 

Pumice,  lighter  colored  lava,  consid- 
ered to  be  decomposed  feldspar. 

Purbeck  Limestone,  an  argillaceous 
limestone. 

Pyriform,  pear  shaped, 

Pyrites,  sulphuret  of  iron,  or  copper. 

Pyrilous  Shale,  third  Greywacke  of 
Eaton. 

Q. 

Quadrate,  somewhat  square. 

Quartz,  one  of  the  simple  minerals, 
composed  mostly  ofsilex. 

Quartz  Rock,  a  rock  composed  of 
crystalline  grains  ef  quartz. 

Quaternary,  the  more  recent  tertiary 
strata. 

R. 

Radiated  ^Animals,  Zoophyles,  the 
lowest  order  of  animals,  sometimes 
called  animal  plants,  such  as  the  cor- 
allines, encrini,  madrepores,  &c. 
wnich  were  long  mistaken  for  marine 
vegetables. 

Radiated  Structure,  applied  to  those 
minerals  whose  fibres  ate  broad,  flat- 
tish  and  diverging. 

Rents,  the  partings  or  divisions  of  rocks. 

Retinasphaltum,  a  resinous  substance 
found  in  Boveycoal. 

Rock  Salt,  salt  obtained  in  a  stony 
form  from  mines. 

Roe  Stone,  Oolite. 

Rubble,  composed  of  fragments,  or 
loose  materials. 

.S. 

Saddle  Shaped,  applied  to  strata  that 
dip  in  opposite  directions. 

Sandstone,  a  term  applied  to  a  stone 
composed  of  grains  of  sand  or  gravel, 
and  oxide  of  iron. 


Sapphire,  crystallized  alumine,  or  clay. 

Saurian,  a  term  applied  to  the  g«nus 
lizard. 

Saussurite,  crystallised  Serpentine, 
combined  with  feldspar,  or  Jade. 

Scaglia,  a  formation  of  chalk. 

Schistose,  slaty. 

Seams,  partings. 

Secondary  Formation,  that  immedi- 
ately above  the  transition. 

Selenile,  crystallized  gypsum. 

Septaria,  stones  divided  into  cells  or 
partitions,  sometimes  the  cells  are 
empty  and  sometimes  filled. 

Septa:,  partitions. 

Seta;,  bristles,  or  hairs. 

Shale,  slate  with  an  excess  of  carbon* 

Shell  marl,  marl  containing  shells. 

Sienite,  a  variety  of  granite  in  which 
hornblende  supplies  the  place  of  mi- 
ca. 

Silcx,  one  of  the  earths,  and  the  most 
abundant;  it  is  a  constituent  of  most 
rocks. 

Sill,  synonymous  with  stratum. 

Silt,  the  deposite  from  salt  water. 

Sinus,  an  excavation. 

Siphunculus,  a  tube  passing  through 
the  chambers  of  some  univalve  shells 

Slate,  argillite,  and  other  schistose 
rocks, 

Slate  Clay,  shale  charged  with  carbon. 

Slaty,  composed  of  straight  parallel 
thin  plates,  lamellar. 

Stalactites,  carbonate  of  lime  formed 
by  the  percolation  of  water  charged 
with  carbonate  of  lime,  through  the 
roof  of  caverns  to  which  the  stalac- 
tites are  appended. 

Stalagmites,  substances  arising  from 
the  floors  of  caverns,  occasioned  by 
the  dropping  of  lime  water  from  the 
roof. 

Stratum,  pi.  Strata,  continuous  beds 
of  rocks. 

Stratified  Rocks>  those  rocks  which  lie 
in  regular  strata. 

Stria;,  thread  like  lines. 

Sub,  (in  composition)  means  approach* 
ing  to,  or  nearly. 

Submarine,  under  the  ocean. 

Submersion,  sunken. 

Subterranean^  under  the  earth. 

Succession,  a  term  applied  to  the  regn- 
larly  placed  strata. 

Sulcusf  a  groove,  or  furrow. 


120 


Supercretaceous*  a  term  improperly 
given  to  the  tertiary  strata. 

Superposition,  is  when  similar  beds 
occur  together  in  the  same  order* 

Swilleys,  small  coal  basins. 

Swine  Stone,  Bituminous  limestone. 
T. 

Tabular,  in  large  plates. 

Talc  a  substance  resembling  mica,  but 
not  elastic. 

Talcous  slate,  slate  containing  a  large 
portion  of  talc:  saponaceous  and  sec- 
tile,  nearly  allied  to  chlorite  slate. 

Tertiary  Formation,  the  upper  for- 
mation. 

Testaceous,  shelly. 

Thermal  waters,  warm  springs, 

Tortuous,  twisted,  winding. 

Tow,  combustible  clay  in  coal  mines. 

Trachyte,  white,  or  grey  lava,  com- 
posed principally  of  feldspar. 

Transition  Formation,  that  next  to 
the  primitive,  sometimes  called  inter- 
mediate. 

Trap  Rock,  greenstone,  the  princi- 
pal constituent  hornblende. 

Traumate,  greywacke. 

Trilobite,  a  crustaceous  fossil  animal. 

Troubles,  broken  strata  in  coal  fields. 


Truncated,  cut  off. 

Uaconformable  position,  those  rocks 

not  in  the  order  of  superposition. 
Univalve,  shells  containing  one  valve. 
Upheaving,  forcing  up  from  beneath. 

Veins,  foreign  minerals  passing  through 
a  stratum. 

Vertebrated,  animals,  those  animals 
possessed  of  a  skull  and  spine. 

Vesicular,  containing  cells  or  holes. 

Volcanic  Rocks,   those  formed  by  the 
action  of  volcanoes, 
W. 

Wacke,  earthy  basalt. 

Way  boards,  strata  of  clay  which  di- 
vide the  strata  of  limestone. 

Whetstone,  a  variety  of  talcy  elate 
with  quartz. 

Whinstone,  a  variety  of  trap. 

Whilestone,  a  variety  of  granite  in 
which  feldspar  is  the  principal  in- 
gredient, by  some  called  Enrite. 

Wild  measures,  soft  imperfect  lime* 
stone  and  shale. 

Wood  coal,  lignite, 
Z. 

Zetchstein,  magnesian  limestone. 


r'P    ' x 
'£    ' 


